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| footer = Clockwise from top-left: [[Angkor Wat]], [[Cambodia]] (the world's largest religious structure); [[Swaminarayan Akshardham (North America)|Swaminarayan Temple]], [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan area|New Jersey]] (the [[List of largest Hindu temples|largest Hindu temple]] outside Asia); [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath Temple]], [[Odisha]]; [[Besakih Temple]], [[Bali]]; [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Ranganathaswamy Temple]], [[Tamil Nadu]]; [[Pashupatinath Temple]], [[Nepal]]; [[Pandarikulam Amman Kovil]], [[Sri Lanka]]; [[Ram Mandir]], [[Ayodhya]] (highest number of daily visitors)<ref name=CNBC50>{{Cite news|url= https://www.cnbctv18.com/travel/culture/ayodhya-ram-temple-50-million-visitors-expected-each-year-surpassing-tirupati-mecca-and-vatican-18880731.htm |title= Ayodhya's Ram Temple may draw 50 million visitors annually, to surpass Tirupati, Mecca, and Vatican |date= 24 January 2024 |publisher = CNBC|access-date=31 March 2024|quote="Ayodhya's Ram Temple may draw 50 million visitors annually, to surpass Tirupati, Mecca, and Vatican"}}</ref>
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| image5 = Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam (49998238702).jpg
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{{Hinduism}}
[[File:Architecture of a Vishnu temple, Nagara style with Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, Garbha Griya, Sikhara, Amalaka, Kalasa marked.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25| Elements in a [[Hindu temple architecture]].]]
A '''Hindu temple''', also known as '''Mandir''', '''Devasthanam''', or '''[[Koil]]''', is a sacred place where [[Hindus]] worship and show their devotion to dieties through worship, sacrifice, and devotion. It is considered the house of the god to whom it is dedicated.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Hindu Temple|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NNcXrBlI9S0C|year=1946|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0223-0|pages=135, context: 40–43, 110–114, 129–139 with footnotes}}, Quote: "The [Hindu] temple is the seat and dwelling of God, according to the majority of the [Indian] names" (p. 135); "The temple as Vimana, proportionately measured throughout, is the house and body of God" (p. 133).</ref><ref name="Michell1977p61">{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA61|year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-53230-1|pages=61–62}}; Quote: "The Hindu temple is designed to bring about contact between man and the gods of Hinduism religion" (...) "The architecture of the Hindu temple symbolically represents this quest by setting out to dissolve or decrease the boundaries between man and the divine".</ref> The design, structure and symbolism of Hindu temples are deeply rooted in Vedic traditions, which use circles and squares in their architecture. The temple's design also represents the concept of recursion and the equivalence of the macrocosm and the microcosm through astronomical numbers and specific alignments related to the location of the temple and the connection between the deity and the worshipper.<ref name="stellakvol1">{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Hindu Temple|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NNcXrBlI9S0C|year=1946|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0223-0|pages=19–43, 135–137, context: 129–144 with footnotes}}</ref><ref>[[Subhash Kak]], "The axis and the perimeter of the temple." Kannada Vrinda Seminar Sangama 2005 held at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles on 19 November 2005.</ref><ref>Subhash Kak, "Time, space and structure in ancient India." Conference on Sindhu-Sarasvati Valley Civilization: A Reappraisal, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, 21 & 22 February 2009.</ref> A temple incorporates all elements of the Hindu cosmos — presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of the Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life — symbolically presenting [[dharma]], [[artha]], [[kama]], [[moksha]], and [[karma]].<ref>[[Stella Kramrisch]], ''The Hindu Temple'', Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, pp. 346-357 and 423-424</ref><ref>[[Klaus Klostermaier]], "The Divine Presence in Space and Time – Murti, Tirtha, Kala"; in ''A Survey of Hinduism'', {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7082-4}}, State University of New York Press, pp. 268-277.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA61|year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-53230-1|pages=61–76}}</ref>
The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient Sanskrit texts of India (for example, the [[Veda]]s and [[Upanishad]]s), while their structural rules are described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture ([[Varāhamihira|Bṛhat Saṃhitā]], [[Vastu shastra|Vāstu Śāstras]]).<ref name=susanlchap4 /><ref>M.R. Bhat (1996), ''Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira'', {{ISBN|978-8120810600}}, Motilal Banarsidass</ref> The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and the economy have flourished.<ref name=bstein /><ref>George Michell (1988), ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}, pp. 58-65.</ref>
Hindu temples come in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs,<ref>Alice Boner (1990), ''Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period'', {{ISBN|978-8120807051}}, see Introduction and pp. 36-37.</ref> yet almost all of them share certain core ideas, symbolism and themes. They are found in South Asia, particularly [[India]] and [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]], in Southeast Asian countries such as [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Indonesia]],<ref>Francis Ching et al., ''A Global History of Architecture'', Wiley, {{ISBN|978-0470402573}}, pp. 227-302.</ref><ref>Brad Olsen (2004), ''Sacred Places Around the World: 108 Destinations'', {{ISBN|978-1888729108}}, pp. 117-119.</ref> and countries such as [[Canada]], [[Fiji]], [[France]], [[Guyana]], [[Kenya]], [[Mauritius]], the [[Netherlands]], [[South Africa]], [[Suriname]], [[Tanzania]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Uganda]], the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and other countries with a significant Hindu population.<ref>Paul Younger, ''New Homelands: Hindu Communities'', {{ISBN|978-0195391640}}, Oxford University Press</ref> The current state and outer appearance of Hindu temples reflect arts, materials and designs as they evolved over two millennia; they also reflect the effect of conflicts between [[Hinduism and Islam]] since the 12th century.<ref>Several books and journal articles have documented the effect on Hindu temples of Islam's arrival in South Asia and Southeast Asia:
* {{cite journal |last=Gaborieau |first=Marc |date=1985 |title=From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: idiom, ritual and ideology of the Hindu-Muslim confrontation in South Asia |journal=Anthropology Today |publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.2307/3033123 |jstor=3033123}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Eaton | first1 = Richard | year = 2000 | title = Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States | journal = Journal of Islamic Studies | volume = 11 | issue = 3| pages = 283–319 | doi = 10.1093/jis/11.3.283 | doi-access = free }}
* [[Annemarie Schimmel]], ''Islam in the Indian Subcontinent'', {{ISBN|978-9004061170}}, Brill Academic, Chapter 1
* Robert W. Hefner, ''Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691050461}}, pp. 28-29.</ref> The [[Swaminarayan Akshardham (North America)|Swaminarayanan Akshardham]] in [[Robbinsville, New Jersey|Robbinsville]], [[New Jersey]] between the [[New York metropolitan area|New York]] and [[Delaware Valley|Philadelphia]] metropolitan areas, was inaugurated in 2014 as one of the world's largest Hindu temples.<ref name=LargestHinduTempleNJ>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/worlds-largest-hindu-temple-being-built-new-jersey-n166616|title=World's Largest Hindu Temple Being Built in New Jersey|author=Frances Kai-Hwa Wang|author-link=Frances Kai-Hwa Wang |publisher=NBC News|date=28 July 2014|access-date=3 December 2016}}</ref>
==Significance and meaning of a temple==
A Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of [[dharma]], beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man, deities, and the Universal ''Puruṣa'' in a sacred space.<ref name=gmichell88>George Michell (1988), ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}, Chapter 1</ref> It represents the triple-knowledge (trayi-[[Vidya (philosophy)|vidya]]) of the Vedic vision by mapping the relationships between the cosmos ([[World egg|brahmaṇḍa]]) and the cell (pinda) by a unique plan based on astronomical numbers.<ref>Subhash Kak, "Time, space and structure in ancient India." Conference on Sindhu-Sarasvati Valley Civilization: A Reappraisal, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, 21 & 22 February 2009. {{ArXiv|0903.3252}}</ref> Subhash Kak sees the temple form and its iconography to be a natural expansion of Vedic ideology related to recursion, change and equivalence.<ref>Kak, S. Early Indian architecture and art. Migration and Diffusion. vol.6, pp. 6-27 (2005)</ref>
[[File:81 grid Parama Sayika design Hindu Temple Floor Plan Vastu Purusa Mandala Ancient Architecture.svg|thumb|360px|The 9x9 (81) grid "Parama Sayika" layout plan (above) found in large ceremonial Hindu Temples. It is one of many grids used to build Hindu temples. In this structure of symmetry, each concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer, ''Paisachika padas'', signifies aspects of Asuras and evil; while the inner ''Devika padas'' layer signifies aspects of Devas and good. In between the good and evil is the concentric layer of ''Manusha padas'', signifying human life. All these layers surround ''Brahma padas'', which signifies creative energy and the site for a temple's primary ''murti'' for darsana. Finally at the very center of the ''Brahma padas'' is the ''Garbhagriha'' (Purusa Space), signifying the Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.<ref name=stellakvol1 />]] In ancient Indian texts, a temple is a place of pilgrimage, known in India as a ''[[Tirtha and Kshetra|Tirtha]]''.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> It is a sacred site whose ambience and design attempts to symbolically condense the ideal tenets of the Hindu way of life.<ref name=gmichell88 /> In a Hindu temple, all the cosmic components that produce and maintain life are there, from fire to water, from depictions of the natural world to gods, from genders that are feminine or masculine to those that are everlasting and universal.
Susan Lewandowski states<ref name=susanlchap4>Susan Lewandowski, "The Hindu Temple in South India", in ''Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment'', Anthony D. King (Ed.), {{ISBN|978-0710202345}}, Routledge, Chapter 4</ref> that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is the belief that all things are one, that everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64-grid or 81-grid mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life – the pursuit of ''[[artha]]'' (prosperity, wealth), of ''[[kama]]'' (pleasure, sex), of ''[[dharma]]'' (virtues, ethical life) and of ''[[moksha]]'' (release, self-knowledge).<ref>Alain Daniélou (2001), ''The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism,'' translated from French to English by Ken Hurry, {{ISBN|0-89281-854-9}}, pp. 101-127.</ref><ref>Samuel Parker (2010), "Ritual as a Mode of Production: Ethnoarchaeology and Creative Practice in Hindu Temple Arts", ''South Asian Studies'', 26(1), pp. 31-57; Michael Rabe, "Secret Yantras and Erotic Display for Hindu Temples", (Editor: David White), {{ISBN|978-8120817784}}, ''Princeton University Readings in Religion'' (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers), Chapter 25, pp. 435-446.</ref> At the centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the [[deity]], is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing ''Purusa'', the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is omnipresent, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger the process of inner realization within the devotee.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> The specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum.<ref>{{cite book| author=Antonio Rigopoulos| title=Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara: A Study of the Transformative and bums Inclusive Character of a Multi-faceted Hindu Deity| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZM-BlvaqAf0C |year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press| isbn=978-0-7914-3696-7| pages=223–224, 243}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author=Alain Daniélou| title=The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09qUXlCkyVIC| year=2001| publisher=Inner Traditions| isbn=978-0-89281-854-9| pages=69–71}}</ref>
In Hindu tradition, there is no dividing line between the [[secular]] and the lonely sacred.<ref name=susanlchap4 /> In the same spirit, Hindu temples are not just sacred spaces; they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and purpose have extended beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus a social meaning. Some temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to celebrate arts through dance and music, to get married or commemorate marriages,<ref>Pyong Gap Min, "Religion and Maintenance of Ethnicity among Immigrants – A Comparison of Indian Hindus and Korean Protestants", in ''Immigrant Faiths'', Karen Leonard (Ed.), {{ISBN|978-0759108165}}, Chapter 6, pp. 102-103.</ref> the birth of a child, other significant life events or the death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu temples have served as a venue for succession within dynasties and landmarks around which economic activity thrived.<ref name="Susan Lewandowski pp 71-73">Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor), {{ISBN|978-0710202345}}, Routledge, pp. 71-73.</ref>
== Forms and designs of Hindu temples ==
{{Main|Hindu temple architecture}}
[[File:Besakih Bali Indonesia Pura-Besakih-02.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Besakih Temple]] in [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]]]]
Almost all Hindu temples take two forms: a house or a palace. A house-themed temple is a simple shelter that serves as a deity's home. The temple is a place where the devotee visits, just like he or she would visit a friend or relative. The use of moveable and immoveable [[murti|images]] is mentioned by [[Pāṇini]]. In the [[Bhakti]] school of Hinduism, temples are venues for [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]], which is a hospitality ritual, where the deity is honored, and where devotee calls upon, attends to and connects with the deity. In other schools of Hinduism, the person may simply perform ''[[japa]]'', or meditation, or [[yoga]], or introspection in his or her temple. Palace-themed temples often incorporate more elaborate and monumental architecture.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hindu Temple – Vishva Hindu Parishad – Thailand|url=https://vhpthailand.org/hindu-temple/|access-date=2021-04-13|language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Site ===
The appropriate site for a temple, suggests ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, and where animals rest without fear of injury or harm.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.<ref name=stellakvol1 /><ref name=susanlchap4 />
[[File:View of Bhutanatha temple in Badami during monsoon.jpg|thumb|400px|Hindu temple sites cover a wide range. The most common sites are those near water bodies, embedded in nature, such as the [[Bhutanatha group of temples, Badami|Bhutanatha temple complex]] at [[Badami]], which is next to a [[waterfall]].]]
{{Blockquote|
1=<poem>
The gods always play where lakes are,
where the sun's rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters,
and where clear waterpaths are made by swans
whose breasts toss the white lotus hither and thither,
where swans, ducks, curleys and paddy birds are heard,
and animals rest nearby in the shade of Nicula trees on the river banks.
The gods always play where rivers have for their braclets
the sound of curleys and the voice of swans for their speech,
water as their garment, carps for their zone,
the flowering trees on their banks as earrings,
the confluence of rivers as their hips,
raised sand banks as breasts and plumage of swans their mantle.
The gods always play where groves are near, rivers, mountains and springs, and in towns with pleasure gardens.
</poem>
|2=[[Varāhamihira]], ''Brhat Samhita'' 1.60.4-8|3=6th century CE<ref>[[Stella Kramrisch]], The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, page 4</ref>
}}
While major Hindu temples are recommended at sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, ''Brhat Samhita'' and ''Puranas'' suggest temples may also be built where a natural source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is symbolically present at the consecration of the temple or the deity. Temples may also be built, suggests ''Visnudharmottara'' in Part III of Chapter 93,<ref>[[Stella Kramrisch]], The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, page 5-6</ref> inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, on mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.
=== Manuals ===
Ancient builders of Hindu temples created manuals of architecture, called ''[[Vastu shastra|Vastu-Sastra]]'' (literally "science" of dwelling; ''vas-tu'' is a composite Sanskrit word; ''vas'' means "reside", ''tu'' means "you"); these contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling)<ref name=bbdutt>BB Dutt (1925), {{Google books|J3jEJFNxdy4C|Town planning in Ancient India}}, {{ISBN|978-81-8205-487-5}}; See critical review by LD Barnett, ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', Vol. 4, Issue 2, June 1926, pp. 391.</ref> and ''Sastra'' meaning system or knowledge in Sanskrit. There exist many Vastu-Sastras on the art of building temples, such as one by [[Thakkura Pheru]], describing where and how temples should be built.<ref name=stellakramrisch76>Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1 & 2, {{ISBN|81-208-0223-3}}</ref><ref>Jack Hebner (2010), Architecture of the Vastu Sastra – According to Sacred Science, in Science of the Sacred (Editor: David Osborn), {{ISBN|978-0557277247}}, pp. 85-92; N Lahiri (1996), Archaeological landscapes and textual images: a study of the sacred geography of late medieval Ballabgarh, ''World Archaeology'', 28(2), pp. 244-264</ref> Sanskrit manuals have been found in India since the 6th century CE.<ref>Susan Lewandowski (1984), Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, edited by Anthony D. King, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0710202345}}, Chapter 4</ref> Vastu-Sastra manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning,<ref name=bbdutt /> and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature.<ref name="Sherri Silverman 2007">Sherri Silverman (2007), Vastu: Transcendental Home Design in Harmony with Nature, Gibbs Smith, Utah, {{ISBN|978-1423601326}}</ref><ref>G. D. Vasudev (2001), Vastu, Motilal Banarsidas, {{ISBN|81-208-1605-6}}, pp. 74-92.</ref> While it is unclear, states Barnett,<ref>LD Barnett, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol 4, Issue 2, June 1926, pp. 391.</ref> as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice, the manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life.<ref name=bbdutt />
[[File:Plan of Kandariya Mahadeva temple.jpg|thumb|250px|Ancient India produced many Sanskrit manuals for Hindu temple design and construction, covering arrangement of spaces (above) to every aspect of its completion. Yet, the Silpins were given wide latitude to experiment and express their creativity.<ref name=mmgeometry />]]
The ''Silpa Prakasa'' of Odisha, authored by Ramacandra Bhattaraka Kaulacara in the 9th or 10th centuries CE, is another Sanskrit treatise on Temple Architecture.<ref name=aliceboner66>Alice Boner and Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā (1966), {{Google books|itQUAAAAIAAJ|Silpa Prakasa Medieval Orissan Sanskrit Text on Temple Architecture}}, E.J. Brill (Netherlands)</ref> Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in the eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example, in the ''Saurastra'' tradition of temple building found in western states of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of ''Nataka-stri'' compared to 16 types described in ''Silpa Prakasa''.<ref name=aliceboner66 /> Silpa Prakasa provides a brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as ''Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana'' compiled by Daniel Smith<ref>H. Daniel Smith (1963), Ed. Pāncarātra prasāda prasādhapam, A Pancaratra Text on Temple-Building, Syracuse: University of Rochester, {{OCLC|68138877}}</ref> and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara<ref>Mahanti and Mahanty (1995 Reprint), Śilpa Ratnākara, Orissa Akademi, {{OCLC|42718271}}</ref> provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types.
Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's ''Prasadamandana'' (literally, manual for planning and building a temple).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sinha | first1 = Amita | year = 1998 | title = Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras | journal = Journal of Cultural Geography | volume = 17 | issue = 2| pages = 27–41 | doi = 10.1080/08873639809478319 }}</ref> ''Manasara'', a text of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by the 7th century CE, is a guidebook on South Indian temple design and construction.<ref name=susanlchap4 /><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tillotson | first1 = G. H. R. | year = 1997 | title = Svastika Mansion: A Silpa-Sastra in the 1930s | journal = South Asian Studies | volume = 13 | issue = 1| pages = 87–97 | doi = 10.1080/02666030.1997.9628528 }}</ref> ''Isanasivagurudeva paddhati'' is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of temple building in India in south and central India.<ref name=skramrisch1958 /><ref>Ganapati Sastri (1920), Īśānaśivagurudeva paddhati, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, {{OCLC|71801033}}</ref> In north India, ''Brihat-samhita'' by [[Varāhamihira]] is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction of ''Nagara'' style of Hindu temples.<ref name=mmgeometry>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael |date=1983 |title=Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages= 266–296 |doi=10.2307/3249613 |jstor=3249613}}</ref><ref name=hgood /><ref>H, Kern (1865), [http://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/BrhatSamhitaSanskrit.pdf The Brhat Sanhita of Varaha-mihara], The Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta</ref>
=== Plan ===
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| title = Plan
| image1 = Plan-temple-konarak.png
| caption1 = Elements of a Hindu temple in Kalinga style. There are many Hindu temple styles, but they almost universally share common geometric principles, symbolism of ideas, and expression of core beliefs.<ref name=stellakvol1 />
| image2 = 64 grid Manduka design Hindu Temple Floor Plan Vastu Purusa Mandala Ancient Architecture.svg
| caption2 = The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron center, where diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.<ref name=stellakvol1 /><ref name=mmgeometry />
}}
A Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design called ''vastu-purusha-mandala''. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. ''Mandala'' means circle, ''Purusha'' is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while ''Vastu'' means the dwelling structure.<ref name=sl6869>Susan Lewandowski, ''The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment'', Anthony D. King (ed.), {{ISBN|978-0710202345}}, Routledge, pp. 68-69.</ref> The Vastu-purusha-mandala is a [[yantra]],<ref name=stellakramrisch76 /> a design laying out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.
The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of the mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while the circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> The square is divided into perfect 64 (or in some cases 81) sub-squares called padas.<ref name=mmgeometry /><ref>The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from the fire altar to [[Agni]]. The alignment along cardinal directions, similarly, is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the [[gnomon]]. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, or make offerings with the Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas lacks the central core, and is also a meditative constructive. The 9-pada design has a sacred surrounded center, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastu-mandalas may use the 9- through 49-pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called ''Manduka'', ''Bhekapada'' or ''Ajira'' in various ancient Sanskrit texts.</ref> Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity. The central square(s) of the 64- or 81-grid is dedicated to [[Brahman]] (not to be confused with brahmin, the scholarly and priestly class in India), and are called ''Brahma padas''.
The 49-grid design is called ''Sthandila'' and is of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in South India, particularly in ''Prakaras''.<ref>In addition to a square four-sided layout, the ''Brhat Samhita'' also describes Vastu and mandala design principles based on a perfect triangle (3), hexagon (6), octagon (8) and hexadecagon (16) sided layouts, according to Stella Kramrisch.</ref> The symmetric Vastu-purusa-mandala grids are sometimes combined to form a temple superstructure with two or more attached squares.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rian | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho | journal = Building and Environment | volume = 42 | issue = 12| pages = 4093–4107 | doi = 10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028 }}</ref> The temples face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala pada facing sunrise is dedicated to [[Surya]], the sun-god. The ''Surya pada'' is flanked by the padas of Satya, the deity of Truth, on one side and [[Indra]], the king of the demigods, on other. The east and north faces of most temples feature a mix of gods and demigods; while the west and south feature demons and demigods related to the underworld.<ref>Stella Kramrisch (1976), ''The Hindu Temple'', Volume 1, {{ISBN|81-208-0223-3}}</ref> This ''vastu-purusha-mandala'' plan and symbolism is systematically seen in ancient Hindu temples on the Indian subcontinent as well as those in southeast Asia, with regional creativity and variations.<ref>Datta and Beynon (2011), [http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30045633/beynon-earlyconnections-2011.pdf "Early Connections: Reflections on the canonical lineage of Southeast Asian temples"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101062440/http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30045633/beynon-earlyconnections-2011.pdf |date=1 November 2018 }}, in ''EAAC 2011: South of East Asia: Re-addressing East Asian Architecture and Urbanism: Proceedings of the East Asian Architectural Culture International Conference'', Department of Architecture, National University of Singapore, Singapore, pp. 1-17</ref><ref>V.S. Pramar, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250257 Some Evidence on the Wooden Origins of the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala],''Artibus Asiae'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (1985), pp. 305-311.</ref>
Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the all-pervasive, all-connecting Universal Spirit, the [[Brahman|highest reality]], the ''purusha''.<ref>This concept has equivalence to the concept of [[Acintya]], or Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa, in Balinese Hindu temples; elsewhere it has been referred to as [[satcitananda]]</ref> This space is sometimes known as the ''garbha-griya'' (literally, “womb house”) – a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence.<ref name=sl6869 /> In or near this space is typically a cult image — which, though many Indians may refer to casually as an idol, is more formally known as a ''murti,'' or the main worshippable deity, who varies with each temple. Often this ''murti'' gives the temple a local name, such as a [[Vishnu]] temple, [[Krishna]] temple, [[Rama]] temple, [[Narayana]] temple, [[Shiva]] temple, [[Lakshmi]] temple, [[Ganesha]] temple, [[Durga]] temple, [[Hanuman]] temple, Surya temple, etc.<ref name=gmichell88 /> It is this [[Garbhagriha|garbha-griya]] which devotees seek for ''[[Darshana|darsana]]'' (literally, a sight of knowledge,<ref>Stella Kramrisch (1976), ''The Hindu Temple'', Vol. 1, {{ISBN|81-208-0223-3}}, p. 8.</ref> or vision<ref name=sl6869 />).
Above the ''vastu-purusha-mandala'' is a superstructure with a dome called ''[[Shikhara]]'' in north India, and ''[[Vimana (tower)|Vimana]]'' in south India, that stretches towards the sky.<ref name=sl6869 /> Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the dome may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, a cone or other mountain-like shape, once again using the principle of concentric circles and squares.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> Scholars suggest that this shape is inspired by the cosmic mountain of Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of the gods, according to Vedic mythology.<ref name=sl6869 />
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| width = 150
| footer = A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.<ref name=stellakvol1 /><ref name=mwmmountain />
| image1 = Circle and squares in Hindu temple Spires Vastu Purusa Mandala.svg
| image2 = Hindu temple Spire design principle concentric circles squares Vastu Purusa Mandala without label.svg
}}
In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa, the universal essence.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> Often this space is visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images may be stories from Hindu Epics; in others, they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice; in yet others, they may be ''murtis'' of locally worshipped deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life – kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is called ''pradakshina''.<ref name=sl6869 />
Large temples also have pillared halls, called ''mandapa'' — one of which, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The ''mandapa'' may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega-temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure,<ref name="Trivedi, K. 1989">Trivedi, K. (1989). "Hindu temples: models of a fractal universe." ''The Visual Computer,'' 5(4), 243-258</ref> each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as "an organism of repeating cells".<ref name="Susan Lewandowski pp 71-73" />
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| width1 = 200
| width2 = 174
| footer = An illustration of Hindu temple Spires (''Shikhara, Vimana'') built using concentric circles and the rotating-squares principle. The left one is from Vijayanagar in [[Karnataka]], and the right one is from Pushkar in [[Rajasthan]].
| image1 = 1 Virupaksha temple Gopuram Hampi Vijayanagar India.jpg
| image2 = Hindu Temple, Pushkar (7438731182).jpg
}}
The ancient texts on Hindu temple design, the ''Vāstu-puruṣa-mandala'' and ''Vastu Śāstras'', do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple.<ref>S. Bafna, "On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition," ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'', Vol. 59, No. 1 (Mar., 2000), pp. 26-49</ref> They describe the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature.<ref name=stellakvol1 /><ref name="Sherri Silverman 2007" />
;Exceptions to the square grid principle
A predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect-square grid principle.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=April–June 1979 |title=Maṇḍala and Practice in Nāgara Architecture in North India |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=204–219 |doi=10.2307/602657 |jstor=602657}}</ref> However, there are some exceptions. For example, the [[Teli ka Mandir|Telika]] Mandir in [[Gwalior]], built in the 8th century CE, is not a square but a rectangle in 2:3 proportion. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting that the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at the Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and at the Nakti-Mata temple near [[Jaipur]], Rajasthan. [[Michael W. Meister|Michael Meister]] suggests that these exceptions mean that the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.<ref name=mmgeometry />
=== Symbolism ===
[[File:Chaturbhuj Temple, Orchha.jpg|right|thumb|[[Chaturbhuj Temple (Orchha)|Chaturbhuj Temple]] at [[Orchha]], is noted for having one of the [[List of tallest Gopurams#Tallest Vimana|tallest Vimana]] among Hindu temples standing at 344 feet.]]
A Hindu temple is a symbolic reconstruction of the universe and the universal principles that enable everything in it to function.<ref name=stellakvol1011>Stella Kramrisch, ''The Hindu Temple'', Vol. 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, pp. 10-11.</ref><ref>George Michell (1988), ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}, pp. 21-22.</ref> The temples reflect Hindu philosophy and its diverse views on the cosmos and on truth.<ref name="Trivedi, K. 1989" /><ref>Edmund Leach, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3629670 "The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture"], ''Journal of Anthropological Research'', Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn 1983), pp. 243-264.</ref>
Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet nor any binding holy book save the Vedas; Hindus can choose to be [[Polytheism|polytheistic]], [[Pantheism|pantheistic]], [[Monism|monistic]], or [[Atheism|atheistic]].<ref>See:
* [[Julius J. Lipner]], ''Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', 2nd Edition, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-45677-7}}, page 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.";
* Lester Kurtz (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict'', {{ISBN|978-0123695031}}, Academic Press, 2008;
* MK Gandhi, [http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf ''The Essence of Hinduism''], Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see p. 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."</ref> Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as ''kṣaitrajña'' (Sanskrit: क्षैत्रज्ञ)<ref>Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, [http://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/73.html क्षैत्रज्ञ] Jim Funderburk and Peter Scharf (2012); Quote:
* क्षैत्रज्ञ [ ''kṣaitrajña'' ] n. ( fr. [ ''kṣetra-jñá'' ] g. [ ''yuvādi'' ], spirituality, nature of the soul Lit. W.; the knowledge of the soul Lit. W.</ref>). It defines spiritual practice as one's journey towards ''[[moksha]]'', awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and content.<ref>See the following two in Ewert Cousins's series on World Spirituality:
* Bhavasar and Kiem, "Spirituality and Health", in ''Hindu Spirituality'', Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), {{ISBN|0-8245-0755-X}}, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp. 319-337;
* John Arapura, "Spirit and Spiritual Knowledge in the Upanishads", in ''Hindu Spirituality'', Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), {{ISBN|0-8245-0755-X}}, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp. 64-85.</ref><ref name=gf>Gavin Flood, ''Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, {{ISBN|978-90-04-17893-9}}, see Article on ''Wisdom and Knowledge'', pp. 881-884.</ref> A Hindu temple reflects these core beliefs. The central core of almost all Hindu temples is not a large communal space; the temple is designed for the individual, a couple or a family – a small, private space to allow visitors to experience ''darsana''.
''Darsana'' is itself a symbolic word. In ancient Hindu scripts, ''darsana'' is the name of six methods or alternate viewpoints of understanding truth.<ref name=skv189>[[Stella Kramrisch]], ''The Hindu Temple'', Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, pp. 8-9.</ref> These are ''Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa'' and ''Vedanta'' – which flowered into individual schools of Hinduism, each of which is considered a valid, alternate path to understanding truth and achieving self-realization in the Hindu way of life.
From names to forms, from images to stories carved into the walls of a temple, symbolism is everywhere in a Hindu temple. Life principles such as the pursuit of joy, connection and emotional pleasure (kama) are fused into mystical, erotic and architectural forms in Hindu temples. These motifs and principles of human life are part of the sacred texts of the Hindus, such as its Upanishads; the temples express these same principles in a different form, through art and spaces. For example, ''Brihadaranyaka Upanisad'' (4.3.21) recites:
{{Blockquote|
1=<poem>
In the embrace of the beloved, one forgets the whole world, everything both within and without;
in the same way, one who embraces the Self knows neither within nor without.
</poem>
|2=[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]|3=7th century BCE<ref>Michael Rabe (1996), [http://asiatica.org/ijts/vol2_no2/sexual-imagery-phantasmagorical-castles-khajuraho/#fn35up "Sexual Imagery on the 'Phantasmagorical Castles' at Khajuraho – The Artha of Temple Kama"], ''International Journal of Tantric Studies'', Vol. 2, No. 2.</ref>
}}
The architecture of Hindu temples is also symbolic. The whole structure fuses the daily life and its surroundings with the divine concepts, through a structure that is open yet raised on a terrace, transitioning from the secular towards the sacred,<ref name=eleach1983 /> inviting the visitor inwards and upwards towards the ''Brahma pada,'' the temple's central core, a symbolic space marked by its spire (''shikhara, vimana''). The ancient temples had grand, intricately carved entrances but no doors, and they lacked a boundary wall. In most cultures, suggests [[Edmund Leach]],<ref name=eleach1983>E Leach, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3629670 "The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture"], ''Journal of Anthropological Research'', Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn, 1983), pp. 249-250.</ref> a boundary and gateway separates the secular and the sacred, and this gateway door is grand. In Hindu tradition, this is discarded in favor of an open and diffusive architecture, where the secular world was not separated from the sacred, but transitioned and flowed into the sacred.<ref>Mary Beth Heston, "Iconographic Themes of the Gopura of the Kailāsanātha Temple at Ellora", ''Artibus Asiae'', Vol. 43, No. 3 (1981–1982), pp. 219-235.</ref> The Hindu temple has structural walls, which were patterned usually within the 64-grid, or other geometric layouts. Yet the layout was open on all sides, except for the core space with a single opening for darsana. The temple space is laid out in a series of courts (''mandapas''). The outermost regions may incorporate the negative and suffering side of life with the symbolism of evil, ''asuras'' and ''rakshashas''; but in small temples this layer is dispensed with. When present, this outer region diffuse into the next inner layer that bridges as human space, followed by another inner ''Devika padas'' space and symbolic arts incorporating the positive and joyful side of life about the good and the gods. This divine space then concentrically diffuses inwards and lifts the guest to the core of the temple, where resides the main ''murti'', as well as the space for the ''Purusa,'' and ideas held to be most sacred principles in Hindu tradition. The symbolism in the arts and temples of Hinduism, suggests Edmund Leach, is similar to those in Christianity and other major religions of the world.<ref>E Leach, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3629670 "The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture"], ''Journal of Anthropological Research'', Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn, 1983), pp. 262.</ref>
=== Building teams ===
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=300
| image1 = 6th-century Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, 1279 CE Hindu text palm leaf manuscript, Pratima lakshana, Sanskrit, Nepalaksara script, folio 1 talapatra from a Buddhist monastery, 1v, 2r 2v leaves.jpg
| image2 = 6th-century Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, Hindu text copied and preserved in a Jain temple, paper manuscript, Sanskrit, Devanagari script, incomplete folio 1r 1v 2r leaves.jpg
| image3 = 6th-century Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, Bhattotpala commentary manuscript, Chapter 3, Sanskrit, Grantha script, palm leaf 1 2r 2v.jpg
| footer = The 6th-century ''Brihat samhita'' is a Sanskrit encyclopedia. Its chapters 57-60 discuss different styles and design of Hindu temples. Above: the text and commentary in Nepalaksara, Devanagari and Tamil Grantha scripts.
}}
Indian texts call the craftsmen and builders of temples "Silpin" (Sanskrit: शिल्पिन्<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=shilpin+&trans=Translate&direction=AU zilpin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314060105/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?beginning=0+&direction=au&script=hk&tinput=shilpin+&trans=translate |date=14 March 2016 }} University of Cologne, Germany</ref>), derived from "Silpa".<ref name=sparker1987>Samuel Parker (1987), "Artistic practice and education in India: A historical overview", ''Journal of Aesthetic Education'', pp. 123-141.</ref> One of the earliest mentions of the Sanskrit word "Silpa" is in [[Atharvaveda]], from about 1000 BCE; according to scholars, the word was used to denote any work of art.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Coomaraswamy | first1 = Ananda | year = 1928 | title = Indian Architectural Terms | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 48 | page = 269 | doi = 10.2307/593145 | jstor = 593145 }}</ref> Some scholars suggest that the word "Silpa" has no direct or one-word translation in English, nor does the word "Silpin". "Silpa", explains Stella Kramrisch,<ref name=skramrisch1958>Stella Kramrisch (1958), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/538558 Traditions of the Indian Craftsman], The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 71, No. 281, (Jul. - Sep., 1958), pp. 224-230</ref> is a multicolored word and incorporates art, skill, craft, ingenuity, imagination, form, expression and inventiveness of any art or craft. Similarly, "Shilpin", notes Kramrisch, is a complex Sanskrit word, describing any person who embodies art, science, culture, skill, and rhythm and employs creative principles to produce any divine form of expression. Silpins who built Hindu temples, as well as the artworks and sculptures within them, were considered by the ancient Sanskrit texts to deploy arts whose number are unlimited, Kala (techniques) that were 64 in number,<ref>Vatsyayana, Kamasutra I.3, Jayamangala</ref> and Vidya (science) that were of 32 types.<ref name=skramrisch1958 />
The Hindu manuals of temple construction describe the education, characteristics of good artists and architects. The general education of a Hindu Shilpin in ancient India included Lekha or Lipi (alphabet, reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana (arithmetic). These were imparted from age 5 to 12. The advanced students would continue in higher stages of Shilpa Sastra studies till the age of 25.<ref>Stella Kramrisch, ''The Hindu Temple'', Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, pp. 11.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Misra | first1 = R. N. | year = 2011 | title = Silpis in Ancient India: Beyond their Ascribed Locus in Ancient Society | journal = Social Scientist | volume = 39 | issue = 7/8| pages = 43–54 }}</ref> Apart from specialist technical competence, the manuals suggest that best Silpins for building a Hindu temple are those who know the essence of Vedas and Agamas, consider themselves as students, keep well verse with principles of traditional sciences and mathematics, painting and geography.<ref name=stellakramrisch76 /> Further they are kind, free from jealousy, righteous, have their sense under control, of happy disposition, and ardent in everything they do.<ref name=skramrisch1958 />
According to Silparatna, a Hindu temple project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and include a Sthapaka (guru, spiritual guide and architect-priest), a Sthapati (architect) who would design the building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons, painters, plasterers, overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors).<ref name=stellakramrisch76 /><ref name=hgood>Heather Elgood (2000), ''Hinduism and the religious arts'', {{ISBN|978-0304707393}}, Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 121-125.</ref> While the temple is under construction, all those working on the temple were revered and considered sacerdotal by the patron as well as others witnessing the construction.<ref name=sparker1987 /> Further, it was a tradition that all tools and materials used in temple building and all creative work had the sanction of a sacrament.<ref name=stellakramrisch76 /> For example, if a carpenter or sculptor needed to fell a tree or cut a rock from a hill, he would propitiate the tree or rock with prayers, seeking forgiveness for cutting it from its surroundings, and explaining his intent and purpose. The axe used to cut the tree would be anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the tree.<ref name=skramrisch1958 /> Even in modern times, in some parts of India such as [[Odisha]], Visvakarma Puja is a ritual festival every year where the craftsmen and artists worship their arts, tools and materials.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Joshi | year = 2013 | title = Boon of astronomy: Rituals and religious festivals in Odisha for a peaceful society | journal = International Journal of Physical and Social Sciences | volume = 3 | issue = 5| pages = 162–176 }}</ref>
== Social functions of Hindu temples ==
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
| image1 = Shiva temple with trident standard Audumbara State Punjab 1st century BCE.jpg|caption1=Hindu Shiva temple depicted in a coin from the [[1st century BC|1st century BCE]].
| image2 = Keshav Narayan chowk, Patan Durbar Square, Lalitpur, Nepal.jpg|caption2=Example of a Hindu temple constructed in the same manner as the one depicted in the coin.
}}
Hindu temples served as nuclei of important social, economic, artistic and intellectual functions in ancient and medieval India.<ref name=michelltempleschool>George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}, pages 58-60</ref><ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 166-193</ref> [[Burton Stein]] states that South Indian temples managed regional development function, such as irrigation projects, land reclamation, post-disaster relief and recovery. These activities were paid for by the donations (melvarum) they collected from devotees.<ref name=bstein>Burton Stein, "The Economic Function of a Medieval South Indian Temple", ''The Journal of Asian Studies'', Vol. 19 (February 1960), pp. 163-76.</ref> According to James Heitzman, these donations came from a wide spectrum of the Indian society, ranging from kings, queens, officials in the kingdom to merchants, priests and shepherds.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Heitzman | first=James | title=Temple Urbanism in Medieval South India | journal=The Journal of Asian Studies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | volume=46 | issue=4 | year=1987 | doi=10.2307/2057102 | pages=791–826, see Table 1 on p. 805 for an illustrative tabulated distribution| jstor=2057102 | s2cid=154068714 }}</ref> Temples also managed lands endowed to it by its devotees upon their death. They would provide employment to the poorest.<ref>T Mahalingam (1951), ''Economic life in the Vijayanagar Empire'', University of Madras, pp. 490-498.</ref> Some temples had large treasury, with gold and silver coins, and these temples served as banks.<ref>Burton Stein (4 February 1961), The state, the temple and agriculture development, ''The Economic Weekly Annual'', pp. 179-187.</ref>
[[File:Sripuram Temple Full View.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Golden Temple, Sripuram|The Golden Temple]] at [[Vellore]] is gilded with 1500 kg of pure gold.]]
Hindu temples over time became wealthy from grants and donations from royal patrons as well as private individuals. Major temples became employers and patrons of economic activity. They sponsored land reclamation and infrastructure improvements, states Michell, including building facilities such as water tanks, irrigation canals and new roads.<ref name=michell58/> A very detailed early record from 1101 lists over 600 employees (excluding the priests) of the [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur]], still one of the largest temples in [[Tamil Nadu]]. Most worked part-time and received the use of temple farmland as reward.<ref name=michell58>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA59 |year=1977| publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn= 978-0-226-53230-1|pages=58–59}}</ref> For those thus employed by the temple, according to Michell, "some gratuitous services were usually considered obligatory, such as dragging the temple chariots on festival occasions and helping when a large building project was undertaken".<ref name="michell58"/> Temples also acted as refuge during times of political unrest and danger.<ref name=michell58/>
In contemporary times, the process of building a Hindu temple by emigrants and diasporas from South Asia has also served as a process of building a community, a social venue to network, reduce prejudice and seek civil rights together.<ref>See:
* Diana L. Eck (2000), "Negotiating Hindu Identities in the US", in [[Harold Coward]], John R. Hinnells, and Raymond Brady Williams (Editors) – The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and the United States, SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-4509-9}}, 219–237
* [[Marion O'Callaghan]] (1998), "Hinduism in the Indian Diaspora in Trinidad", ''Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies'', Vol. 11, Article 5, doi 10.7825/2164-6279.1178
* Chandra Jayawardena, "Religious Belief and Social Change: Aspects of the Development of Hinduism in British Guiana", ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'', Vol. 8, No. 2 (January 1966), pp. 211-240.</ref>
=== Library of manuscripts ===
{{Infobox
| title = Types of Hindu temples
| image =
{{image array|perrow=2|width=160|height=120
| image1 = Undavalli Caves.jpg| caption1 = Cave temple
| image2 = Hindu temple in Ubud.jpg| caption2 = Forest temple
| image3 = Masrur rockcut temple.jpg| caption3 = Mountain temple
| image4 = Somnath-current.jpg| caption4 = Seashore temple
}}
}}
John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi state Hindu temples served as centers where ancient manuscripts were routinely used for learning and where the texts were copied when they wore out.<ref>John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi (2011), Wonder of the Age: Master Painters of India, 1100–1900, The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], {{ISBN|978-1588394309}}, page 19</ref> In South India, temples and associated ''mathas'' served custodial functions, and a large number of manuscripts on [[Hindu philosophy]], poetry, grammar and other subjects were written, multiplied and preserved inside the temples.<ref>Saraju Rath (2012), Aspects of Manuscript Culture in South India, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004219007}}, pages ix, 158-168, 252-259</ref> Archaeological and epigraphical evidence indicates existence of libraries called ''Sarasvati-bhandara'', dated possibly to early 12th-century and employing librarians, attached to Hindu temples.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 183-186</ref>
Palm-leaf manuscripts called [[Palm-leaf manuscript#Javanese and Balinese|lontar]] in dedicated stone libraries have been discovered by archaeologists at Hindu temples in [[Bali]] Indonesia and in 10th century Cambodian temples such as Angkor Wat and [[Banteay Srei]].<ref>Wayne A. Wiegand and Donald Davis (1994), Encyclopedia of Library History, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0824057879}}, page 350</ref>
=== Temple schools ===
Inscriptions from the 4th century CE suggest the existence of schools around Hindu temples, called ''Ghatikas'' or ''Mathas'', where the [[Vedas]] were studied.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 169-171</ref> In south India, 9th century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called ''Calai'' or ''Salai'', and these provided free boarding and lodging to students and scholars.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, page 175</ref><ref name="Dayalan1992p202">{{cite book|author=D. Dayalan|title=Early Temples of Tamilnadu: Their Role in Socio-Economic Life (c. 550-925 CE)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3XXAAAAMAAJ|year=1992|publisher=Harman |isbn=978-81-85151-55-7|pages=202–203}}, Quote: "There were some institutions [Hindu temples] which may be called temple-colleges and strove for the promotion of education in the country. They also acted as great residential institutions and offered facilities for the study and stay of hundreds of students and teachers from far and near. Some of these were triple institutions, a college, a hostel and a hospital knit together. Many of such institutions are found described in the Chola inscriptions. (...) But the earliest known Vedic institution of advanced studies that existed in the Tamil country was the vidyasthana at Bahur near Pondicherry. A copper plate grant issued during the reign of Nripatungavarman (877 CE) records the gift of certain villages as ''vidya-bhoga'' for its maintenance."</ref> The temples linked to [[Bhakti movement]] in the early 2nd millennium, were dominated by non-Brahmins.<ref name=scharfetempleschools /> These assumed many educational functions, including the exposition, recitation and public discourses of Sanskrit and Vedic texts.<ref name=scharfetempleschools>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 173-174</ref> Some temple schools offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting.<ref name=michelltempleschool /><ref name=scharfetempleschools2>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, page 176-182</ref> By the 8th century, Hindu temples also served as the social venue for tests, debates, team competition and Vedic recitals called ''Anyonyam''.<ref name=michelltempleschool /><ref name=scharfetempleschools2 />
=== Hospitals, community kitchen, monasteries ===
According to Kenneth G. Zysk – a professor specializing in Indology and ancient medicine, Hindu ''mathas'' and temples had by the 10th-century attached medical care along with their religious and educational roles.<ref name="Zysk1998p45" /> This is evidenced by various inscriptions found in Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and elsewhere. An inscription dated to about 930 CE states the provision of a physician to two ''matha'' to care for the sick and destitute. Another inscription dated to 1069 at a Vishnu temple in Tamil Nadu describes a hospital attached to the temple, listing the nurses, physicians, medicines and beds for patients. Similarly, a stone inscription in Andhra Pradesh dated to about 1262 mentions the provision of a ''prasutishala'' (maternity house), ''vaidya'' (physician), an ''arogyashala'' (health house) and a ''viprasattra'' (hospice, kitchen) with the religious center where people from all social backgrounds could be fed and cared for.<ref name="Zysk1998p45">{{cite book|author=Kenneth G. Zysk|title=Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BAFndFpP4oUC |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1528-5|pages=45–46}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Willis|title=The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual: Temples and the Establishment of the Gods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ShzJoQEACAAJ|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-46016-4|page=106}}</ref> According to Zysk, both Buddhist monasteries and Hindu religious centers provided facilities to care for the sick and needy in the 1st millennium, but with the destruction of Buddhist centers after the 12th century, the Hindu religious institutions assumed these social responsibilities.<ref name="Zysk1998p45" /> According to George Michell, Hindu temples in South India were active charity centers and they provided free meal for wayfarers, pilgrims and devotees, as well as boarding facilities for students and hospitals for the sick.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA59 |year=1977| publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn= 978-0-226-53230-1|pages=59–60}}</ref>
The 15th and 16th century Hindu temples at [[Hampi]] featured storage spaces (temple granary, ''kottara''), water tanks and kitchens.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kapila Vatsyayan|author-link=Kapila Vatsyayan|title=Concepts of Space, Ancient and Modern|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1a7XZdH1V0C&pg=PA198|year=1991|publisher=Abhinav|isbn=978-81-7017-252-9|pages=198–199}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last1= Fritz|first1= John M|last2 =Michell| first2 =George|title=Hampi Vijayanagara|publisher = Jaico|isbn= 978-81-8495-602-3| year=2016|pages=61–63}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Anila Verghese|title=Hampi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TDduAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-565433-2|pages=20, 33, 39}}</ref> Many major pilgrimage sites have featured ''dharmashalas'' since early times. These were attached to Hindu temples, particularly in South India, providing a bed and meal to pilgrims. They relied on any voluntary donation the visitor may leave and to land grants from local rulers.<ref name=sen126>{{cite book|author=Colleen Taylor Sen|title=Food Culture in India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YIyV_5wrplMC&pg=PA126| year=2004|publisher=Greenwood |isbn =978-0-313-32487-1|pages =126–127}}</ref> Some temples have operated their kitchens on a daily basis to serve the visitor and the needy, while others during major community gatherings or festivals. Examples include the major kitchens run by Hindu temples in [[Udupi]] (Karnataka), [[Puri]] (Odisha) and [[Tirupati]] (Andhra Pradesh). The tradition of sharing food in smaller temple is typically called ''prasada''.<ref name=sen126 /><ref>{{cite book|author=Albertina Nugteren|title=Belief, Bounty, And Beauty: Rituals Around Sacred Trees in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SkPQAkBGA9YC&pg=PA412|year=2005|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-14601-6|pages=412–413}}</ref>
== Styles ==
Hindu temples are found in diverse locations each incorporating different methods of construction and styles:
* Mountain<ref name=mwmmountain>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=March 2006 |title=Mountain Temples and Temple-Mountains: Masrur |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=26–49 |doi=10.2307/25068237 |jstor=25068237}}</ref> temples such as [[Masrur Temples|Masrur]]
* Cave<ref name=mwmcaveforest>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=1981 |title=Forest and Cave: Temples at Candrabhāgā and Kansuān |journal=Archives of Asian Art |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |volume=34 |pages=56–73 |jstor=20111117}}</ref> temples such as Chandrabhaga, Chalukya<ref>Gary Tarr, Chronology and Development of the Chāḷukya Cave Temples, Ars Orientalis, Vol. 8 (1970), pp. 155-184.</ref> and [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]]
* Stepwell temple compounds such as the [[Mata Bhavani's Stepwell|Mata Bhavani]], Ankol Mata and Huccimallugudi<ref>Jutta Neubauer (1981), The Stepwells of Gujarat: in art-historical perspective, {{ISBN|978-0391022843}}, see Introduction, Chapters 1 and 2.</ref>
* Forest<ref name=mwmcaveforest /> temples such as Kasaun and Kusama<ref>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=1975–1976 |title=A Field Report on Temples at Kusuma |journal=Archives of Asian Art |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |volume=29 |pages=23–46 |jstor=20062576}}</ref>
* River bank and sea shore temples such as [[Somnath temple|Somnath]]
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| align = right
| width = 200
| footer = Hindu deities, stepwell style.
| image1 =Rani ki vav 07.jpg
| image2 = Rani ki Vav sculptures 02.jpg
}}
;Step well temples
In arid western parts of India, such as Rajasthan and Gujarat, Hindu communities built large walk-in wells that served as the only source of water in dry months but also served as social meeting places and carried religious significance. These monuments went down into the earth towards subterranean water, up to seven storeys, and were part of a temple complex.<ref name=jneubauer>Jutta Neubauer, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23005658 "The stepwells of Gujarat"], ''India International Centre Quarterly'', Vol. 26, No. 2 (Summer 1999), pp. 75-80.</ref> These vav (literally, stepwells) had intricate art reliefs on the walls, with numerous ''murtis'' and images of Hindu deities, water spirits and erotic symbolism. The step wells were named after Hindu deities; for example, [[Mata Bhavani's Stepwell]], Ankol Mata Vav, Sikotari Vav and others.<ref name=jneubauer /> The temple ranged from being small single pada (cell) structure to large nearby complexes. These stepwells and their temple compounds have been variously dated from late 1st millennium BCE through 11th century CE. Of these, [[Rani ki vav]], with hundreds of art reliefs including many of [[Vishnu]] deity avatars, has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage site.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/922 Rani-ki-vav at Patan, Gujarat], UNESCO World Heritage Site.</ref>
; Cave temples
The [[Indian rock-cut architecture]] evolved in Maharashtran temple style in the 1st millennium CE. The temples are carved from a single piece of rock as a complete temple or carved in a cave to look like the interior of a temple. [[Ellora]] Temple is an example of the former, while The [[Elephanta Caves]] are representative of the latter style.<ref name=":0" />{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} The [[Elephanta Caves]] consist of two groups of caves—the first is a large group of five Hindu caves and the second is a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The Hindu caves contain rock-cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/would-you-like-to-know-these-amazing-facts-about-elephanta-caves-1455523138-1|title=Would you like to Know These Amazing facts about Elephanta Caves|date=2016-02-15|website=Jagranjosh.com|access-date=2019-12-28}}</ref>
== Arts inside Hindu temples ==
[[File:KAHLB 09 Dancing Ganesha Hoysaleswara.jpg|thumb|Dancing [[Ganesha]] sculpture at [[Hoysaleswara Temple]], intricate designs of [[Hoysala architecture]] are seen.]]
A typical, ancient Hindu temple has a profusion of arts – from paintings to sculpture, from symbolic icons to engravings, from thoughtful layout of space to fusion of mathematical principles with Hindu sense of time and cardinality.
Ancient Sanskrit texts classify ''murtis'' and images in a number of ways. For example, one method of classification is the dimensionality of completion:<ref name=grao1914 />
* '''Chitra''': images that are three-dimensional and completely formed
* '''Chitrardha''': images that are engraved in half relief
* '''Chitrabhasa''': images that are two-dimensional, such as paintings on walls and cloth
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| width1 = 120
| width2 = 103
| footer = Images and ''murtis'' inside Hindu temples vary widely in their expression. ''Raudra'' or ''ugra'' images express destruction, fear and violence, such as the Kali image at left. ''Shanta'' or ''saumya'' images express joy, knowledge and harmony, such as the Saraswati image at right. ''Saumya'' images are most common in Hindu temples.
| image2 = Saraswati.jpg
| image1 = Kali by Raja Ravi Varma.jpg
}}
Another way of classification is by the expressive state of the image:
* '''Raudra''' or '''Dugra''': are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have wide, circular eyes, carry weapons, have skulls and bones as adornment. These ''murtis'' were worshiped by soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress or terrors. Raudra deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably outside and in remote areas of a kingdom.<ref name=grao1914>Gopinath Rao (1914), [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924071128825#page/n61/mode/2up Elements of Hindu Iconography] Madras, Cornell University Archives, pp. 17-39.</ref>
* '''Shanta''' and '''saumya''': are images that were pacific, peaceful and expressive of love, compassion, kindness and other virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry symbolic icons of peace, knowledge, music, wealth, flowers, sensuality among other things. In ancient India, these temples were predominant inside villages and towns.<ref name=grao1914 />
A Hindu temple may or may not include a ''murti'' or images, but larger temples usually do. Personal Hindu temples at home or a hermitage may have a pada for yoga or meditation, but be devoid of anthropomorphic representations of god. Nature or others arts may surround him or her. To a Hindu yogin, states Gopinath Rao,<ref name=grao1914 /> one who has realised the Self and the Universal Principle within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image for worship. However, for those who have yet to reach this height of realization, various symbolic manifestations through images, ''murtis'' and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. Some ancient Hindu scriptures like the Jabaladarshana Upanishad appear to endorse this idea<ref name=grao1914 />
{{Blockquote|
1=<poem>
शिवमात्मनि पश्यन्ति प्रतिमासु न योगिनः ।
अज्ञानं भावनार्थाय प्रतिमाः परिकल्पिताः ॥५९॥
- जाबालदर्शनोपनिषत्
</poem>
<poem>
A yogin perceives god (Siva) within himself; images are for those who have not reached this knowledge.
</poem>
|2=''Jabaladarsana Upanishad'', verse 59<ref>[http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_sa/jabaladarshana_sa.html Jabaladarsana Upanishad] 1.59</ref>
}}
However, devotees aspiring to a personal relationship with the Supreme Lord, whom they worship variously as Krishna or Shiva, for example, tend to reverse such hierarchical views of self-realization, holding that the personal form of the deity, as the source of the Brahma-jyoti, or the light into which impersonalists, according to their ideals, propose to merge themselves and their individual identities, will benevolently accept worship through an ''arca vigraha,'' an authorized form constructed not according to imagination but in pursuit of scriptural directives.
== Historical development and destruction ==
{{main|Hindu temple architecture}}
A number of ancient Indian texts suggest the prevalence of ''murtis'', temples and shrines in Indian subcontinent for thousands of years. For example, the temples of the Koshala kingdom are mentioned in the [[Valmiki Ramayana]]<ref>Valmiki Ramayana, Ayodhya Khand, Canto 50, Verse 8</ref> (various recent scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE)<ref name="Brockington1998">{{cite book|author=J. L. Brockington|title=The Sanskrit Epics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C&pg=PA379|year=1998|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-10260-4|pages=379–}}</ref> The 5th century BCE text, ''[[Astadhyayi]]'', mentions male deity ''arcas'' or ''murtis'' of Agni, Indra, Varuna, Rudra, Mrda, Pusa, Surya, and Soma being worshipped, as well as the worship of arcas of female goddesses such as Indrani, Varunani, Usa, Bhavani, Prthivi and Vrsakapayi.<ref name=mm1988e>Michael Meister (1988), Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Oxford University Press, 0-691-04053-2, Chapter 1</ref> The 2nd century BCE "[[Mahabhasya]]" of [[Patanjali]] extensively describes temples of ''Dhanapati'' (deity of wealth and finance, Kubera), as well as temples of Rama and Kesava, wherein the worship included dance, music and extensive rituals. The ''Mahabhasya'' also describes the rituals for Krsna, Visnu and Siva. An image recovered from Mathura in north India has been dated to the 2nd century BCE.<ref name=mm1988e /> Kautilya's [[Arthashastra]] from 4th century BCE describes a city of temples, each enshrining various Vedic and Puranic deities. All three of these sources have common names, describe common rituals, symbolism and significance possibly suggesting that the idea of ''murtis'', temples and shrines passed from one generation to next, in ancient India, at least from the 4th century BCE.<ref name=mm1988e /> The oldest temples, suggest scholars, were built of [[brick]] and [[wood]]. [[Dimension stone|Stone]] became the preferred material of construction later.<ref>[[Subhash Kak]], Early Indian Architecture and Art, Migration & Diffusion, Vol.6/Nr.23, pages 6-27, 2005.</ref><ref name="The Hindu Temple 1946">[[Stella Kramrisch]], The Hindu Temple. University of Calcutta, Calcutta, 1946.</ref>
Early Jain and Buddhist literature, along with Kautilya's Arthashastra, describe structures, embellishments and designs of these temples – all with motifs and deities currently prevalent in Hinduism. Bas-reliefs and ''murtis'' have been found from 2nd to 3rd century, but none of the temple structures have survived. Scholars<ref name=mm1988e /> theorize that those ancient temples of India, later referred to as Hindu temples, were modeled after domestic structure – a house or a palace. Beyond shrines, nature was revered, in forms such as trees, rivers, and stupas, before the time of Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira. As Jainism and Buddhism branched off from the religious tradition later to be called Hinduism, the ideas, designs and plans of ancient Vedic and Upanishad era shrines were adopted and evolved, likely from the competitive development of temples and arts in Jainism and Buddhism. Ancient reliefs found so far, states Michael Meister,<ref name=mm1988e /> suggest five basic shrine designs and combinations thereof in 1st millennium BCE:
# A raised platform with or without a symbol
# A raised platform under an umbrella
# A raised platform under a tree
# A raised platform enclosed with a railing
# A raised platform inside a pillared pavilion
Many of these ancient shrines were roofless, some had ''[[torana]]s'' and roof.
From the 1st century BCE through 3rd century CE, the evidence and details about ancient temples increases. The ancient literature refers to these temples as ''Pasada'' (or Prasada), ''stana'', ''mahasthana'', ''devalaya'', ''devagrha'', ''devakula'', ''devakulika'', ''ayatana'' and ''harmya''.<ref name=mm1988e /> The entrance of the temple is referred to as ''dvarakosthaka'' in these ancient texts notes Meister,<ref name=mm1988e /> the temple hall is described as ''sabha'' or ''ayagasabha'', pillars were called ''kumbhaka'', while ''vedika'' referred to the structures at the boundary of a temple.
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Lad NKAD90.JPG|The 5th-century Ladkhan Shiva Temple, in the [[Aihole]] Hindu-Jain-Buddhist temple site, in [[Karnataka]].
File:5th century Hindu temples Eran Madhya Pradesh, plan sketched in 1880.jpg|Plan of 5th-century temples in [[Eran]], [[Madhya Pradesh]].
File:View of the Remains of the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh.jpg|The early 6th-century [[Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh|Dashavatara Temple]] in the [[Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh|Deogarh complex]] has a simple, one-cell plan.
File:1880 sketch of early 6th century Deogarh Dashavatara Hindu temple plan.jpg|1880 sketch of the 9-square floorplan of the same temple (not to scale or complete). For better drawings:<ref>Madho Sarup Vats (1952), [https://books.google.com/books?id=hzwTAAAAIAAJ The Gupta Temple at Deogarh], Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, Vol. LXX, pages 49-51 Plates 1-3</ref>
File:Plan of 6th century Badami Cave 3 Hindu temple, annotated.jpg|Layout of Cave 3 temple of the 6th-century [[Chalukya dynasty#Architecture|Chalukyan]]-style [[Badami cave temples]]
File:Elephanta Map.svg|Plan of the 6th-century main-cave temple at [[Elephanta Caves|Elephanta]].
File:6th century Cave 1 temple Elephanta island Mandala Mumbai harbor.svg|The Elephanta main cave is thought to follow this mandala design.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Carmel Berkson|author2=Wendy Doniger|author3=George Michell|title=Elephanta: The Cave of Shiva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_RYqq7um0hcC|year=1999|publisher=Princeton University Press (Motilal Banarsidass, Reprint)|isbn=978-81-208-1284-0|pages=17–21}}</ref>
File:Durga Temple Ceiling, Aihole, Karnataka.jpg|A 7th century [[Chalukya dynasty#Architecture|Chalukyan]]-style temple ceiling, also in Aihole.
Rani ki vav1.jpg|[[Rani ki Vav]] is an 11th-century [[stepwell]], built by the [[Chaulukya dynasty]], located in [[Patan, Gujarat|Patan]]. <!--The city was sacked by [[Sultanate of Delhi|Sultan of Delhi]], [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak]] between 1200 and 1210, and it was destroyed by the [[Gujarat Sultanate|Sultan of Gujarat]], [[Allauddin Khilji]], in 1298.<ref name=re2000/>{{relevance-inline}}--> The stepwell remains well-preserved, but is partly silted over.
</gallery>
{{Infobox
| title = Ancient Hindu temples outside the Indian subcontinent
| image =
{{image array|perrow=2|width=160|height=120
| image1 = Атешгях в наши дни.jpg | caption1 = [[Ateshgah of Baku|Ateshgah]] temple, used for Hindu, Sikh, and Zoroastrian worship, [[Azerbaijan]]
| image2 = Angkor Wat.jpg | caption2 = [[Angkor Wat]], [[Cambodia]]
| image3 = Prambanan Shiva Temple.jpg | caption3 = [[Prambanan]] temple, [[Indonesia]]
| image4 = Po Nagar 1.jpg | caption4 = [[Po Nagar]] temple, [[Vietnam]]
}}
}}
With the start of [[Gupta dynasty]] in the 4th century, Hindu temples flourished in innovation, design, scope, form, use of stone and new materials as well as symbolic synthesis of culture and [[Dharma|dharmic]] principles with artistic expression.<ref>Banerji, New Light on the Gupta Temples at Deogarh, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol V (1963), pp. 37-49.</ref><ref>Saraswati, Temple Architecture in the Gupta Age, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol VIII (1940), pp. 146-158.</ref> It is this period that is credited with the ideas of garbhagrha for ''Purusa'', mandapa for sheltering the devotees and rituals in progress, as well as symbolic motifs relating to dharma, karma, kama, artha and moksha. Temple superstructures were built from stone, brick and wide range of materials. Entrance ways, walls and pillars were intricately carved, while parts of temple were decorated with gold, silver and jewels. Visnu, Siva and other deities were placed in Hindu temples, while Buddhists and Jains built their own temples, often side by side with Hindus.<ref>Joanna Williams, The Art of Gupta India, Empire and Province, Princeton, 1982</ref>
The 4th through 6th century marked the flowering of ''Vidharbha'' style, whose accomplishments survive in central India as [[Ajanta caves]], [[Pavnar]], [[Mandhal]] and [[Mahesvar]]. In the [[Malaprabha river]] basin, South India, this period is credited with some of the earliest stone temples of the region: the [[Badami Chalukya architecture|Badami Chalukya]] temples are dated to the 5th century by some scholars,<ref>Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art (New York, 1965 reprint), pp. 78-80.</ref> and the 6th by some others.<ref>Gary Tartakov, "The Beginning of Dravidian Temple Architecture in Stone", ''Artibus Asiae'', Vol. 42, No. 1 (1980), pp. 39-99.</ref>
Over 6th and 7th centuries, temple designs were further refined during [[Maurya]] dynasty, evidence of which survives today at [[Ellora]] and in the [[Elephanta Caves|Elephanta cave temples]].
It is the 5th through 7th century CE when outer design and appearances of Hindu temples in north India and south India began to widely diverge.<ref>Michael Meister (Editor), Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Architecture – South India 200 BCE to 1324 CE, University of Pennsylvania Press (1983), {{ISBN|0-8122-7840-2}}</ref> Nevertheless, the forms, theme, symbolism and central ideas in the grid design remained same, before and after, pan-India as innovations were adopted to give distinctly different visual expressions.
The [[Western Chalukya architecture]] of the 11th- & 12th-century [[Tungabhadra]] region of modern central [[Karnataka]] includes many temples. [[Step-well]]s are consist of a shaft dug to the [[water table]], with steps descending to the water; while they were built for secular purposes, some are also decorated as temples, or serve as a [[temple tank]].
During the 5th to 11th century, Hindu temples flourished outside Indian subcontinent, such as in [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]]. In Cambodia, [[Khmer architecture]] favoured the [[Khmer architecture#Temple mountain|Temple mountain]] style famously used in Angkor Wat, with a [[Prang (architecture)|prang]] spire over the sanctum cell. Indonesian [[Candi of Indonesia|candi]] developed regional forms. In what is modern south and central Vietnam, [[Art of Champa#Temples of brick|Champa architecture]] built brick temples.
Destruction, conversion, and rebuilding
Many Hindu temples have been destroyed, some, after rebuilding, several times. Deliberate temple destruction usually had religious motives. Richard Eaton has listed 80 campaigns of Hindu temple site destruction stretching over centuries, particularly from the 12th through the 18th century.<ref>Richard Eaton (5 January 2001), [http://ftp.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_eaton_temples2.pdf "Temple desecration and Indo-Muslim states"], ''Frontline'', pp. 70-77 (Archived by Columbia University)</ref> Others temples have served as non-Hindu places of worship, either after conversion or simultaneously with Hindu use.
In the 12th-16th century, during [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]] and South Asia, Hindu temples, along with the temples of Buddhists and Jains, intermittently became targets of armies from Persian, Central Asian, and Indian sultanates. Imagined by these foreign zealots to be mere idols, sacred [[Iconoclasm|Forms of various deities]] were broken, spires and pillars were torn down, and temples were looted of their treasury. Some temples were [[Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques|converted into mosques]], or parts used to build mosques.<ref>See:
* Elizabeth Merklinger, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20752479 The Mosques of Raichur: A preliminary classification], Kunst des Orients, Vol. 12, H. 1/2 (1978/1979), pp. 79-94.
* Mark Jarzombek et al. (2010), ''A Global History of Architecture'', Wiley, {{ISBN|978-0470402573}}, Chapters and Sections: "1200 CE – Delhi through Qutb Minar"
* Ali Javid, ''World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India'', Volume 1, {{ISBN|978-0875864839}}, pp. 263. Quote - "The stones to construct the mosque were obtained by demolishing twenty seven Hindu and Jain temples."</ref> There exist both [[Freedom of religion in India#Tradition of religious freedom|Indian]] and [[Dhimmi|Muslim traditions]] of religious toleration. Muslim rulers led campaigns of temple destruction and forbade repairs to damaged temples, following the Muslim traditions. The [[Delhi Sultanate]] destroyed a large number of temples; [[Sikandar Shah Miri|Sikandar the Iconoclast]], [[History of Kashmir#Prelude and Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1580s)|Sultan of Kashmir]], was also known for his intolerance.<ref>See:
* Peter Jackson (2003), The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521543293}}, pp. 168
* A.L. Srivastava (1966), [https://archive.org/stream/sultanateofdelhi001929mbp#page/n345/mode/2up/ Delhi Sultanate], 5th Edition, Agra College
* Vincent Smith (1920), ''The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911'', Oxford University Press, pp. 268-269, 306-307, 437-438</ref>
The 16th- and 19th-century [[Goa Inquisition]] destroyed hundreds of Hindu temples. All Hindu temples in Portuguese colonies in India were destroyed, according to a 1569 letter in the Portuguese royal archives.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Portuguese in Goa, in Acompanhando a Lusofonia em Goa: Preocupações e experiências pessoais |year = 2016 | author= Teotonio R. De Souza| url=http://recil.grupolusofona.pt/jspui/bitstream/10437/509/1/PortuGoa.pdf | pages=28–30 |publisher= Lisbon: Grupo Lusofona}}</ref> {{Citation needed span|text=Temples were not converted into churches.|date=December 2020}} Religious conflict and desecrations of places of worship continued during the [[British Raj|British colonial era]].<ref>Marc Gaborieau (1985), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3033123 From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: idiom, ritual and ideology of the Hindu-Muslim confrontation in South Asia], Anthropology Today, 1(3), pp. 7-14.</ref>
Historian Sita Ram Goel's book "What happened to Hindu Temples" lists over 2000 sites where temples have been destroyed and mosques have been built over them. Some historians suggest that around 30,000 temples were destroyed by Islamic rulers between 1200 and 1800 CE.
Destruction of Hindu temple sites was comparatively less in the southern parts of India, such as in [[Tamil Nadu]]. Cave-style Hindu temples that were carved inside a rock, hidden and rediscovered centuries later, such as the [[Kailasa Temple, Ellora|Kailasa Temple]], have also preferentially survived. Many are now UNESCO world heritage sites.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/243 Ellora Caves] Cave 16 – Kailasha Hindu Temple, 8th century CE, UNESCO</ref>{{better source needed|reason=general statement|date=August 2019}}
In India, the Place of Worship (Special Provisions) Act was enacted in 1991 which prohibited the conversion of any religious site from the religion to which it was dedicated on 15 August 1947.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/what-does-the-places-of-worship-act-protect/article29993190.ece|title=What does the Places of Worship Act protect?|last=Venkataramanan|first=K.|date=2019-11-17|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-12-28|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Place of Worship(Special Provisions) Act, 1991 |url=https://mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/PlaceWorshipAct1991_0.pdf |publisher=Government of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Rautray |first1=Samanwaya |title=1991 central law precludes Ayodhya judgment setting precedent |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/1991-central-law-precludes-ayodhya-judgment-setting-precedent/cid/473370 |website=www.telegraphindia.com |language=en |date=10 Oct 2002}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" caption="" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="210">
Somnath temple ruins (1869).jpg|The [[Somnath temple]] in Gujarat was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. Here it is shown in 1869, after having been ruined by order of [[Aurangzeb]] in 1665. These ruins were demolished and the temple rebuilt in the 1950s.
Benares- The Golden Temple, India, ca. 1915 (IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66).jpg|The [[Kashi Vishwanath Temple]] was destroyed by the army of [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]] in 1194 CE. Since then, it has been demolished twice (in the 1400s, and 1669 CE) and rebuilt four times (in the 1200s, twice in the 1500s under [[Akbar]], and in the 1800s). Shown is the current 1800s temple, with the white domes and minaret of the co-located 1600s [[Gyanvapi Mosque]] in the background. The tonne of gold for the temple roof was donated by [[Ranjit Singh]] in 1835.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.217371|title=The Sacred City of the Hindus: An Account of Benares in Ancient and Modern Times|author=[[Matthew Atmore Sherring]]|publisher=Trübner & co.|year=1868|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.217371/page/n93 51] }}</ref><ref name="Madhuri_2007">{{cite book|author=Madhuri Desai|title=Resurrecting Banaras: Urban Space, Architecture and Religious Boundaries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdD3MYnYey8C&pg=PA30|year=2007|isbn=978-0-549-52839-5 }}</ref>
File:Plan Of The Ancient Temple Of Vishveshvur by James Prinsep 1832.jpg|An 1832 reconstruction of the 1500s temple Akbar funded. [[James Prinsep]] based the reconstruction on the foundations of the Gyanvapi Mosque. Many Hindu temples were rebuilt as [[mosques]] between 12th and 18th century CE.
Sun temple martand indogreek.jpg|Ruins of the [[Martand Sun Temple]] after being destroyed on the orders of the Sultan of Kashmir, [[Sikandar Butshikan|Sikandar the Iconoclast]], in the early 15th century, with demolition lasting a year.
Temple de Mînâkshî01.jpg|In the 14th century, the armies of [[Delhi Sultanate]], led by [[Malik Kafur]], plundered the [[Meenakshi Temple]] and looted it of its valuables; it was rebuilt and expanded in the 16th century.
Warangal_fort.jpg|[[Kakatiya Kala Thoranam]] (the Warangal Gate) built in the 12th century by the [[Kakatiya dynasty]]; the [[Warangal Fort]] temple complex [[Siege of Warangal (1323)|was destroyed]] in the 1300s by the Delhi Sultanate.<ref name=re2000>Richard Eaton (2000), [https://web.archive.org/web/20150406011408/http://jis.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/3/283.extract Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States], Journal of Islamic Studies, 11(3), pp 283-319</ref>
Elevation of Kirtistambh Rudramahalaya Sidhpur Gujarat India.jpg|Artistic rendition of the Kirtistambh, a surviving portion of the 10-11th century [[Rudra Mahalaya Temple]]. The temple was partly destroyed by the [[Delhi Sultanate|Sultan of Delhi]], [[Alauddin Khalji]], in 1296 CE, with part converted into a mosque and further parts destroyed by [[Ahmed Shah I]] in the fifteenth century.
Exteriors Carvings of Shantaleshwara Shrine 02.jpg|Exterior wall reliefs at [[Hoysaleswara Temple]]. The temple was twice sacked and plundered by the Delhi Sultanate in the early 14th century, and abandoned in the mid 14th century.<ref name="Bradnock2000p959">{{cite book|author1=Robert Bradnock|author2=Roma Bradnock|title=India Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hCFDsTbmhoC|year=2000|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0-658-01151-1|page=959}}</ref>
File:Mahadev Temple at Tambdi Surla.jpg|The 12th-century [[Mahadev Temple, Tambdi Surla|Mahadev Temple]] is the only [[Kadambas of Goa|Kadamba]]-period temple building to survive the [[Goa Inquisition]].
</gallery>
== Customs and etiquette ==
[[File:PURI JAGANATHA TEMPLE, PURI, ORISSA, INDIA, ASIA.jpg|thumb|[[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath Temple]] at [[Puri]], one of the [[Char Dham]]: the four main spiritual centers of Hinduism.]]
In Hinduism, temples are considered sacred spaces where the divine is believed to manifest, and devotees visit these places to experience the presence and blessings of the deity. The customs and etiquette for visiting temples varies across India. Devotees in major temples may bring in symbolic offerings for the [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]]. This includes fruits, flowers, sweets and other symbols of the bounty of the natural world. Temples in India are usually surrounded with small shops selling these offerings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flueckiger |first=Joyce Burkhalter |title=Everyday Hinduism |date=2015 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-6021-6 |location=Chichester, West Sussex |pages=87–99}}</ref>
When inside the temple, devotees keep both hands folded ([[namaste]] [[mudra]]). The inner sanctuary, where the [[murtis]] reside, is known as the ''[[garbhagriha]]''. It symbolizes the birthplace of the universe, the meeting place of the gods and humankind, and the threshold between the transcendental and the phenomenal worlds.<ref>Werner, Karel (1994). ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism''. Curzon Press. {{ISBN|0-7007-1049-3}}.</ref> It is in this inner shrine that devotees seek ''[[Darshan (Indian religions)|darśana]]'' (seeing and being seen by the auspicious sight of the divine)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eck |first=Diana L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEzh2QSNdlEC&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India |date=2007 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishe |isbn=978-81-208-3266-4 |pages=3 |language=en}}</ref> and offer prayers. Devotees may or may not be able to personally present their offerings at the feet of the deity. In most large Indian temples, only the [[pujari]]s (priest) are allowed to enter the main sanctum.<ref name="Narayanan">Narayanan, Vasudha. "The Hindu Tradition". In ''A Concise Introduction to World Religions'', ed. Willard G. Oxtoby and Alan F. Segal. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.</ref>
Temple management staff typically announce the hours of operation, including timings for special [[Puja (Hinduism)|pujas]]. These timings and nature of special puja vary from temple to temple. Additionally, there may be specially allotted times for devotees to perform [[pradakshina]] (circumambulations) around the temple.<ref name="Narayanan" />
Visitors and worshipers to large Hindu temples may be required to deposit their shoes and other footwear before entering. Where this is expected, the temples provide an area and help staff to store footwear. Dress codes vary. It is customary in temples in [[Kerala]], for men to remove shirts and to cover pants and shorts with a traditional cloth known as a ''[[Mundu]]''.<ref>Bain, Keith, Pippa Bryun, and David Allardice. ''Frommer's India''. 1st. New Jersey: Wiley Publishing, 2010, p. 75.</ref> In Java and Bali (Indonesia), before one enters the most sacred parts of a Hindu temple, shirts are required as well as a [[sarong]] around one's waist.<ref>''Indonesia Handbook'', 3rd edition, {{ISBN|978-1900949514}}, pp. 38.</ref> At many other locations, this formality is unnecessary.
== Regional variations in Hindu temples ==
=== Nagara Architecture of North Indian temples ===
{{multiple image
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| caption1 = [[Kedarnath Temple]], [[Uttarakhand]]
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| caption2 = [[Sivasagar Sivadol]], [[Assam]]
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North Indian temples are referred to as Nagara style of temple architecture.<ref name=adamhardy>Adam Hardy (2007), The Temple Architecture of India, John Wiley & Sons, {{ISBN|978-0470028278}}</ref> They have ''sanctum sanctorum'' where the deity is present, open on one side from where the devotee obtains ''[[darśana]]''. There may or may not be many more surrounding corridors, halls, etc. However, there will be space for devotees to go around the temple in clockwise fashion [[circumambulation]]. In North Indian temples, the tallest towers are built over the ''sanctum sanctorum'' in which the deity is installed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Raymond |year=2001 |title=Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65422-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will |url-access=registration |pages= [https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will/page/123 123]–136 }}</ref>
The north India Nagara style of temple designs often deploy [[fractal]]-theme, where smaller parts of the temple are themselves images or geometric re-arrangement of the large temple, a concept that later inspired French and Russian architecture such as the [[Matryoshka doll|matryoshka]] principle. One difference is the scope and cardinality, where Hindu temple structures deploy this principle in every dimension with garbhgriya as the primary locus, and each pada as well as zones serving as additional centers of [[Focus (geometry)|loci]]. This makes a Nagara Hindu temple architecture symbolically a perennial expression of movement and time, of centrifugal growth fused with the idea of unity in everything.<ref name=adamhardy />
=== Temples in West Bengal ===
[[File:Dakshineswar.jpg|thumb|220x220px|[[Dakshineswar Kali Temple]], [[Kolkata]]]]
In [[West Bengal]], the [[Bengal temple architecture#West Bengal terra cotta temple architecture|Bengali terra cotta temple architecture]] is found. Due to lack of suitable stone in the alluvial soil locally available, the temple makers had to resort to other materials instead of stone. This gave rise to using [[terracotta]] as a medium for temple construction. Terracotta exteriors with rich carvings are a unique feature of Bengali temples. The town of [[Bishnupur, Bankura|Bishnupur]] in West Bengal is renowned for this type of architecture. There is also a popular style of building known as Naba-ratna (nine-towered) or Pancha-ratna (five-towered). An example of Navaratna style is the [[Dakshineswar Kali Temple]].<ref>Pika Ghosh (2005), Temple to Love: Architecture and Devotion in Seventeenth-century Bengal, {{ISBN|978-0253344878}}, Indiana University Press</ref>
=== Temples in Odisha ===
[[Odisha]] temple architecture is known as [[Kalinga architecture]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/lifestyle/model-art-ancient-temples-of-odisha-come-alive-in-crafted-stone-miniatures/1787483/|title=Model art: Ancient temples of Odisha come alive in crafted stone miniatures|date=2019-12-08|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-28}}</ref> classifies the spire into three parts, the ''Bāḍa'' (lower limb), the ''Ganḍi'' (body) and the ''Cuḷa/Mastaka'' (head). Each part is decorated in a different manner. Kalinga architecture is a style which flourished in Kalinga, the name for kingdom that included ancient Odisha. It includes three styles: ''Rekha Deula'', ''Pidha Deula'' and ''Khakhara Deula''.<ref>Dibishada Brajasundar Garnayak, [http://www.orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/orissareview/nov-2007/engpdf/Pages55-59.pdf Evolution of Temple Architecture in Orissa], Orissa Review, November 2007</ref> The former two are associated with [[Vishnu]], [[Surya]] and [[Shiva]] temples while the third is mainly associated with [[Chamunda]] and [[Durga]] temples. The ''Rekha Deula'' and ''Khakhara Deula'' houses the ''[[sanctum sanctorum]]'' while the ''Pidha Deula'' style includes space for outer dancing and offering halls.
[[File:Bird view of Jagannath Temple, Puri.jpg|centre|thumb|790x720px|Bird's Eye view of one of the four [[Char Dham]]s, [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|The Jagannath Temple]] at [[Puri]], [[Odisha]] built using the [[Kalinga architecture|Kalinga Architecture]].]]
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Jagannath Temple, Emami Paper Mill Complex, Balasore.jpg
| image2 = The sun temple at konark.jpg
| image3 = Raja Rani Temple - A different angle.jpg
| footer = Jagannath Temple in the [[Balasore District]], the magnificent [[Konark Sun Temple]] near [[Puri]] and the [[Rajarani Temple]] in [[Bhubaneswar]]
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=== Temples of Goa and Konkani ===
[[File:Saptakoteshwar Temple.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Saptakoteshwar Temple, Goa.]]
The temple architecture of Goa is quite unique. As Portuguese colonial hegemony increased, Goan Hindu temples became the rallying point to local resistance.<ref>Padmaja Vijay Kamat, [http://macrotheme.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/9MR25Kam.22264637.pdf "Temple Economy in Goa: A Case Study"], ''The Macrotheme Review'' 2(5), Fall 2013, pp. 97-111.</ref> Many these temples are not more than 500 years old, and are a unique blend of original Goan temple architecture, Dravidian, Nagar and [[Hemadpanthi]] temple styles with some [[British architecture|British]] and [[Portuguese architecture|Portuguese architectural]] influences. Goan temples were built using sedimentary rocks, wood, limestone and clay tiles, and copper sheets were used for the roofs. These temples were decorated with mural art called as ''[[Kaavi art|Kavi kala]]'' or ''ocher art''. The interiors have murals and wood carvings depicting scenes from the [[Hindu mythology]].
=== South Indian and Sri Lankan temples ===
{{multiple image|centre|
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| image1 = Le temple de Srirangam (Tiruchirapalli, Inde) (13903661293).jpg
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| caption1 = A row of gopurams (towers) in the [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam Ranganathaswmy temple]], a typical South Indian [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavate]] temple complex in [[Srirangam]], [[Tamil Nadu]].
| image2 = Spiritual 16.jpg
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| caption2 = [[Koneswaram Temple]], a Tamil [[Saivaite|Saivate temple]] in [[Trincomalee|Tirukonamalai]], [[Sri Lanka]].
}}
South Indian temples have a large [[gopuram]], a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of the temple. This forms a prominent feature of [[Koil]]s, [[Hindu temple architecture|Hindu temples]] of the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian style]].<ref name=ching2>{{cite book| first=Francis D.K.| last= Ching| year= 2007| title= A Global History of Architecture
| url=https://archive.org/details/globalhistoryofa0000chin| url-access=registration| publisher=John Wiley and Sons| location=New York| isbn= 978-0-471-26892-5| page= [https://archive.org/details/globalhistoryofa0000chin/page/762 762]|display-authors=etal}}</ref> They are topped by the ''kalasam'', a bulbous stone [[finial]]. They function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.<ref name=ching>{{cite book| first=Francis D.K.
| last= Ching| year= 1995| title= A Visual Dictionary of Architecture
| publisher=John Wiley and Sons| location=New York| isbn= 0-471-28451-3| page= 253}}</ref> The gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the [[Tamil people|Tamil]] kings [[Pallavas]]; and by the twelfth century, under the [[Pandya]] rulers, these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the gopuram's colossal size.<ref name=mitchell>{{cite book| last =Michell| first =George| title = The Hindu Temple| publisher =University of Chicago Press
| year =1988| location =Chicago| pages = 151–153
| isbn = 0-226-53230-5}}</ref> It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one gopuram.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037402/gopura
|title=gopura|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2008-01-20}}</ref> They also appear in architecture outside India, especially [[Khmer architecture]], as at [[Angkor Wat]]. A koil may have multiple gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in tiers around the main shrine. The temple's walls are typically square with the outer most wall having gopuras. The [[sanctum sanctorum]] and its towering roof (the central deity's shrine) are also called the ''[[Vimana (shrine)|vimanam]]''.<ref>[[Ram Raz]], Henry Harkness (1834), {{Google books|cdEDAAAAYAAJ|Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus}}</ref> The inner sanctum has restricted access with only priests allowed beyond a certain point.
==== Temples in Kerala ====
Temples in Kerala have a different architectural style (keeping the same essence of Vastu), especially due to climatic differences Kerala have with other parts of India with larger rainfall. The temple roof is mostly tiled and is sloped and the walls are often square, the innermost shrine being entirely enclosed in another four walls to which only the pujari (priest) enters. The walls are decorated with either mural paintings or rock sculptures which many times are emphasised on Dwarapalakas.
[[File:TVM Padmanabhaswamy Temple.jpg|thumb|790px|centre|[[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]].]]
==== Temples in Tamil Nadu ====
The [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple]] is the '''worlds largest functioning Hindu temple'''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5894/ | title=Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam }}</ref> The temple is present in [[Tamil Nadu]], the temple was first built by the Chola ruler, '''Dharmavarma'''. The Kaveri river flood destroyed the temple and ''vimanam'' submerged in the island, and later, the [[early Cholas]] King [[Killivalavan]] rebuilt the temple complex as is present today. Beyond the ancient textual history, archaeological evidence such as inscriptions refer to this temple, and these stone inscriptions are from late 100 BCE to 100 CE.{{sfn|Sircar| 1979| p= 64}} Hence, making it one of the '''Oldest surviving active temple complexes in South India'''. Later, the temple constructions reached its peak during rule of is construction reached its peak during rule of [[Pallavas]]. They built various temples around [[Kancheepuram]], and [[Narasimhavarman II]] built the [[Thirukadalmallai]] and [[Shore Temple]] in Mamallapuram, a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]. The [[Pandyas]] rule created temples such as the [[Koodal Azhagar temple]] and [[Meenakshi Amman Temple]] at Madurai and [[Srivilliputhur Andal Temple]] at Srivilliputhur.{{sfn|Sastri|1970|pp=18–182}} The [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] were prolific temple builders right from the times of the first medieval king [[Vijayalaya Chola]]. The Chola temples include [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam]], the [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadeeshwarar temple at Tanjore]], [[Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram|Brihadeeshwarar temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram]] and the [[Airavatesvara Temple|Airavatesvarar Temple of Darasuram]] which are among the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]]. The [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Nayaks of Madurai]] reconstructed some of the well-known temples in Tamil Nadu such as the [[Meenakshi Temple]].<ref name=susanlchap4 /> One of the southernmost famous temples in South India, the Ramanathaswamy Temple was built in the 17th century on the island of Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{Cite web |last=earnmyvacation.com |date=2023-05-30 |title=A Journey Through the Most Beautiful South Indian Temples |url=https://earnmyvacation.com/south-indian-temple/ |access-date=2023-06-01 |website=Earn My Vacation |language=en-US}}</ref>
[[File:Aerial view of Sri Rangam temple near Tiruchirapalli 1.jpg|thumb|750x750px|center|An aerial view of the [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam]] in [[Srirangam]], often known as ''Bhuloka Vaikuntham'' and First among the 108 [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavate]] [[Divya Desam]]s]]
=== Temples in Nepal ===
The [[Pashupatinath Temple|Pashupatinath temple]] in [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]] is an important temple in Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://prasantbhatt.com/nepal-travel-trekking/9-amazing-nepali-temple-you-must-visit-before-you-die/|title=Major Hindu Temples In Nepal {{!}} Himalaya Parvat {{!}} Pashupatinath Temple|last=Bhatt|first=Shiva|date=2018-04-13|work=Hindu Temples In Nepal|access-date=2018-05-17|language=en-US}}</ref> It is built in a pagoda style and is surrounded by hundreds of temples and buildings built by kings. The temples top is made from pure gold.
[[File:Pashupati dec 20 2009.jpg|thumb|800px|center|{{center|[[Pashupatinath Temple]] from the other bank of Bagmati river, [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]].}}]]
=== Khmer Temples ===
[[File:Bantay srei.jpg|thumb|Art relief at the Hindu temple [[Banteay Srei]] in Cambodia.]]
[[Angkor Wat]] was built as a Hindu temple by King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yasodharapura (Khmer, present-day [[Angkor]]), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. The Spire in Khmer Hindu temple is called Giri (mountain) and symbolizes the residence of gods just like Meru does in Bali Hindu mythology and Ku (Guha) does in Burmese Hindu mythology.<ref>Stella Kramrisch, ''The Hindu Temple'', Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, pp. 170-172.</ref>
Angkor Wat is just one of numerous Hindu temples in [[Cambodia]], most of them in ruins. Hundreds of Hindu temples are scattered from Siem Reap to Sambor Prei Kuk in central Cambodian region.<ref>Kubo Sumiko, Geomorphology, Archaeo-stratigraphy, and 14C Ages of Sambor Prei Kuk Pre-Angkorean Site, Central Cambodia, BULLETIN of the Graduate School of Education of Waseda University (Japan), No.22, March 2012</ref>
=== Temples in Indonesia ===
{{Main|Candi of Indonesia| List of Hindu temples in Indonesia|Balinese temple}}
[[File:Overview of Pura Besakih 1557.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The [[Besakih]] temple complex, largest Hindu temple in [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]].]]
Ancient Hindu temples in [[Indonesia]] are called ''[[Candi of Indonesia|Candi]]'' (read: ''chandi''). Prior to the rise of [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]], between the 5th to 15th century Dharmic faiths (Hinduism and Buddhism) were the majority in Indonesian archipelago, especially in [[Java]] and [[Sumatra]]. As the result numerous Hindu temples, locally known as ''[[Candi of Indonesia|candi]]'', constructed and dominated the landscape of Java. According to local beliefs, Java valley had thousands of Hindu temples which co-existed with Buddhist temples, most of which were buried in [[Mount Merapi#Geological history|massive eruption of Mount Merapi]] in 1006 CE.<ref>Taylor, K., & Altenburg, K. (2006). Cultural Landscapes in Asia‐Pacific: Potential for Filling World Heritage Gaps 1. International journal of heritage studies, 12(3), pages 267-282</ref><ref>Degroot, V. M. Y. (2009). Candi, space and landscape: a study on the distribution, orientation and spatial organization of Central Javanese temple remains (Doctoral dissertation, Leiden Institute for Area Studies, SAS Indonesie, Faculty of Arts, Leiden University)</ref>
[[File:Pura Bratan Bali.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Pura Ulun Danu Bratan]], [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]].]]
Between 1,100 and 1,500 additional Hindu temples were built, but abandoned by Hindus and Buddhists as Islam spread in Java circa 15th to 16th century.
In last 200 years, some of these have been rediscovered mostly by farmers while preparing their lands for crops. Most of these ancient temples were rediscovered and reconstructed between 19th to 20th century, and treated as the important [[archaeology|archaeological findings]] and also as [[tourist attraction]],<ref name="Hindu Temple Tour">{{cite web|url=https://www.hindutempleyatra.in|title=Hindu Temple Tour|access-date=23 July 2019}}</ref> but not as the house of worship. Hindu temples of ancient [[Java]] bear resemblances with temples of [[South Indian]] style. The largest of these is the 9th century Javanese Hindu temple, [[Prambanan]] in [[Yogyakarta]], now a [[UNESCO]] world heritage site. It was designed as three concentric squares and has 224 temples. The inner square contains 16 temples dedicated to major Hindu deities, of which [[Shiva]] temple is the largest.<ref>[[Subhash Kak|Kak, S]]. (2011) Space and order in Prambanan. In M. Gupta (ed.) From Beyond the Eastern Horizon: Essays in honour of Professor [[Lokesh Chandra]]. Aditya Prakashan, Delhi. [http://www.hinduwisdom.info/prambanan_chapter.pdf]</ref> The temple has extensive wall reliefs and carvings illustrating the stories from the Hindu epic [[Ramayana]].<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/642 Prambanan Temple Compounds] UNESCO world heritage site</ref>
In [[Bali]], the [[Balinese Hinduism|Hindu]] temple is known as "[[Pura (Balinese temple)|Pura]]", which is designed as an open-air worship place in a walled compound. The compound walls have a series of intricately decorated gates without doors for the devotee to enter. The design, plan and layout of the holy pura follows a square layout.<ref>Brigitta Hauser-Schaublin (1993), Keraton and Temples in Bali, in Urban Symbolism (Editor: P. Nas), Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004098558}}</ref><ref>Hildred Geertz, The Life of a Balinese Temple, {{ISBN|978-0824825331}}, University of Hawaii Press</ref>
The majority of Hindu temples in Java were dedicated to Shiva, who Javanese Hindus considered as the God who commands the energy to destroy, recombine and recreate the cycle of life. Small temples were often dedicated to Shiva and his family (wife Durga, son Ganesha). Larger temple complexes include temples for Vishnu and Brahma, but the most majestic, sophisticated and central temple was dedicated to Shiva. The 732 CE Canggal inscription found in Southern Central Java, written in Indonesian Sanskrit script, eulogizes Shiva, calling him God par-excellence.
[[File:Yogyakarta Indonesia Prambanan-temple-complex-02.jpg|thumb|800px|center|{{center|The [[Prambanan]] temple complex in [[Yogyakarta]], the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia and the second largest Hindu temple in [[Southeast Asia]].}}]]
=== Temples in Vietnam ===
[[File:My Son.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Partially ruined [[Mỹ Sơn]] Hindu temple complex, Vietnam.]]
There are a number of Hindu temple clusters built by the [[Champa]] Kingdoms along the coast of [[Vietnam]], with some on UNESCO world heritage site list.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=949 My Son Sanctuary] Vietnam, UNESCO World Heritage Site</ref> Examples include [[Mỹ Sơn]] – a cluster of 70 temples with earliest dated to be from the 4th century CE and dedicated to Siva, while others are dedicated to Hindu deities Krishna, Vishnu and others. These temples, internally and with respect to each other, are also built on the Hindu perfect square grid concept. Other sites in Vietnam with Hindu temples include Phan Rang with the Cham temple [[Po Klong Garai]].<ref>Ngô Vǎn Doanh (2006), ''Champa: Ancient Towers''. Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, Chapter 16.</ref>
=== Temples in Thailand ===
[[File:Wat Khaek Silom Sri Mariamman Hindu temple Bangkok.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Sri Mariamman Temple, Bangkok]]]]
[[Thailand]] has many notable Hindu temples including: the [[Mariamman Temple, Bangkok|Sri Mariammam temple]] in Bangkok, the [[Devasathan]], the [[Erawan Shrine]], [[Prasat Muang Tam]], [[Sdok Kok Thom]] and [[Phanom Rung Historical Park|Phanom Rung]]. Most of the newer Hindu temples are of South Indian origin and were built by Tamil migrant communities. However, Thailand has many historic indigenous Hindu temples such as [[Phanom Rung Historical Park|Phanom Rung]]. Although most indigenous Hindu temples are ruins, a few such as [[Devasathan]] in Bangkok are actively used.
=== Temples outside Asia ===
Many members of the diaspora from the Indian subcontinent have established Hindu temples outside India as a means of preserving and celebrating cultural and spiritual heritage abroad. Describing the hundreds of temples that can be found throughout the United States, scholar Gail M. Harley observes, "The temples serve as central locations where Hindus can come together to worship during holy festivals and socialize with other Hindus. Temples in America reflect the colorful kaleidoscopic aspects contained in Hinduism while unifying people who are disbursed throughout the American landscape."<ref>Harley, Gail M. (2003). ''Hindu and Sikh Faiths in America''. Facts on File, Inc. {{ISBN|0-8160-4987-4}}.</ref> Numerous temples in North America and Europe have gained particular prominence and acclaim, many of which were built by the [[Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha]]. The Ganesh temple of [[Hindu Temple Society of North America]], in [[Flushing, Queens|Flushing]], [[Queens]], [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan region|New York City]], is the oldest Hindu temple in the [[Western Hemisphere]], and its [[cafeteria|canteen]] feeds 4,000 people a week, with as many as 10,000 during the [[Diwali]] (Deepavali) festival.<ref name=FlushingHinduTempleCanteen>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/30/nyregion/in-line-for-blessings-and-sweets-at-hindu-temple-canteen.html?_r=1|title=In Line for Blessings and Sweets at Hindu Temple Canteen|author=Shivani Vora|newspaper=The New York Times|date=28 October 2016|access-date=29 October 2016}}</ref>
====New York/New Jersey====
<gallery mode="packed" widths="160px" heights="160px">
File:Exterior Hindu Temple.JPG|The Ganesh temple of [[Hindu Temple Society of North America]] is the oldest Hindu temple in the [[Western hemisphere]], in [[Flushing, Queens|Flushing]], [[Queens]], [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan area|New York City]].
File:BAPS Robbinsville Mandir - mandir interior.jpg|[[Akshardham (New Jersey)|Swaminarayan Akshardham]] in [[Robbinsville, New Jersey|Robbinsville]], [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan area|New Jersey]], U.S., is [[List of largest Hindu temples|the world’s second-largest Hindu temple]] and the largest and most-visited Hindu temple outside [[Asia]].<ref name="modern new jersey">{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/world/hindu-temple-largest-outside-india-modern-new-jersey-8954200/lite/|title=World's largest Hindu temple outside India in modern era to be inaugurated on October 8 in New Jersey|newspaper=The Indian Express|date=September 25, 2023|access-date=October 1, 2023}}</ref>
File:Bridge water Temple, New Jersey.jpeg|[[Sri Venkateswara Temple (New Jersey)|Sri Venkateswara Temple]] in [[Bridgewater, New Jersey|Bridgewater]], [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan area|New Jersey]], in a semi-rural setting, serves as the flagship for the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society of USA.
</gallery>
====Outside New York/New Jersey====
<gallery mode="packed" widths="160px" heights="160px">
File:Sri Siva Vishnu Temple.jpg|[[Sri Siva Vishnu Temple]] in [[Maryland]], U.S., welcomes both [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] and [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] worshippers.
File:Hindu Temple Victoria Seychelles Islands of Africa.jpg|Hindu temple in [[Victoria, Seychelles|Victoria]], [[Seychelles]]
File:Clairwood-Shree-Shiva-Temple.jpg|[[Hinduism in South Africa|Clairwood Shri Shiva Temple]] in [[Durban, South Africa|Durban]], [[South Africa]]
</gallery>
== Temple management ==
The [[Archaeological Survey of India]] has control of most ancient temples of archaeological importance in India. In India, day-to-day activities of a temple is managed by a temple board [[committee]] that administers its [[finance]]s, management, and events. Since independence, the autonomy of individual Hindu religious denominations to manage their own affairs with respect to temples of their own denomination has been severely eroded and the state governments have taken control of major Hindu temples in some countries; however, in others, such as the United States, private temple management autonomy has been preserved.
== Etymology and nomenclature ==
{{location map+|India|float=right|width=400|caption=Major Hindu temple sites for ''[[Tirtha (Hinduism)|Tirtha]]'' and general tourism in India. Orange markers are UNESCO world heritage sites.
|places=
{{Location map~|India|label='''Somnath'''|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=20.888028|long=70.401278}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=16.073889|long=78.968056}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=23.182778|long=75.768333}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=22.249722|long=77.651667}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=24.48|long=86.7}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=19.072076|long=73.535807}}
{{location map~|India|label='''Rameshwaram'''|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=9.283333|long=79.3}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=22.333333|long=69.083333}}
{{location map~|India|label='''Varanasi'''|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=25.310753|long=83.010614}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=bottom|lat=17.933333|long=75.55}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=30.733333|long=79.066667}}
{{location map~|India|label='''Badrinath'''|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=30.744|long=79.493}}
{{location map~|India|label='''Puri'''|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=19.8|long=85.81}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=20.1154|long=75.225}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right|lat=24.863|long=79.92}}
{{location map~|India |lat=24.718|long=84.999 |label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=bottom}}
{{location map~|India |lat=22.4833|long=73.5332|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=20.552377|long=75.700436|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=20.02639|long=75.17917|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=18.95833|long=72.93055|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=10.951483 |long=79.3562|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=11.1219 |long=79.2710|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=10.783055 |long=79.1325|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=12.61667|long=80.19167|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=15.3144|long=76.47167|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=top}}
{{location map~|India |lat=15.94833|long=75.816667|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=top}}
{{location map~|India |lat=19.8875|long=86.09472|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=23.85892|long=72.10162|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=21.8|long=88.1|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=27.5|long=77.67|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=29.956|long=78.17|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=23.18|long=75.78|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=34.215|long=75.501|label= '''Amarnath''' |mark=Blue pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=12.82|long=79.71|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=8.078|long=77.541|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=26.5|long=74.55|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{Location map~|India|label='''Tirupati'''|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=13.40597|long=79.20499}}
{{location map~|India|label=" Ramappa Temple"|mark=Orange pog.svg |position=right| lat=18.259| long=79.943}}
}}
In [[Sanskrit]], the liturgical language of Hinduism, the word ''mandira'' means "house" ({{lang-sa|मन्दिर}}). Ancient Sanskrit texts use many words for temple, such as ''matha, vayuna, kirti, kesapaksha, devavasatha, vihara, suravasa, surakula, devatayatana, amaragara, devakula, devagrha, devabhavana, devakulika'', and ''niketana''.<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/tamil/recherche Sanskrit words for Temple] Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Koeln University, Germany</ref> Regionally, they are also known as ''prasada'', ''vimana'', ''kshetra'', ''gudi'', ''ambalam'', ''punyakshetram'', ''deval'', ''[[deula]]'', ''devasthanam'', ''[[Koil|kovil]]'', ''[[Candi of Indonesia|candi]]'', ''[[Balinese temple|pura]]'', and ''[[wat]]''.
The following are the other names by which a Hindu temple is referred to in India:
* ''Devasthana'' (ದೇವಸ್ಥಾನ) in [[Kannada]]
* ''Deul''/''Doul''/''Dewaaloy'' in [[Assamese language|Assamese]] and in [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
* ''[[Deul|Deval]]/Raul/Mandir'' (मंदिर) in [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
* ''Devro/Mindar'' in [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]]
* ''Devala''{{Script|Kthi|( 𑂠𑂵𑂫𑂪 )}}, ''Devalaya''{{Script|Kthi|( 𑂠𑂵𑂫𑂰𑂪𑂨 )}}, ''Math''{{Script|Kthi|(𑂧𑂘)}}, ''Devaghar''{{Script|Kthi|( 𑂠𑂵𑂫𑂐𑂩 )}} or ''Mandira''{{Script|Kthi|(𑂧𑂢𑂹𑂠𑂱𑂩)}} in [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]]. ''Thakurbari''{{Script|Kthi|(𑂘𑂍𑂳𑂩𑂥𑂰𑂚𑂲)}} and ''sivala''{{Script|Kthi|(𑂮𑂱𑂫𑂰𑂪𑂰)}} are specially use of Krishna temple and Shiva temple respectively.
* ''[[Deula]]'' (ଦେଉଳ) or ''Mandira''(ମନ୍ଦିର) in [[Odia language|Odia]] and ''Gudi'' in Kosali Odia
* ''Gudi'' (గుడి), ''Devalayam'' (దేవాలయం), ''Devasthanam'' (దేవస్థానము), ''Kovela'' (కోవెల), ''Kshetralayam'' (క్షేత్రాలయం), ''Punyakshetram'' (పుణ్యక్షేత్రం), or ''Punyakshetralayam'' (పుణ్యక్షేత్రాలయం), ''Mandiramu'' (మందిరము) in [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
* ''[[Kovil]]'' or kō-vill (கோவில்) and occasionally ''Aalayam'' (ஆலயம்) in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]; the Tamil word ''Kovil'' means "residence of God"<ref>The word ''ko'' in Tamil language also means ''king'', and ''kovil'' can also mean ''king's house''.</ref>
* ''Kshetram'' (ക്ഷേത്രം), ''Ambalam'' (അമ്പലം), ''Kovil'' (കോവിൽ), ''Devasthanam'' (ദേവസ്ഥാനം) or ''Devalayam'' (ദേവാലയം) in [[Malayalam]]
* ''Mandir'' (मंदिर) in [[Hindi]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (ਮੰਦਰ), [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] (મંદિર), and [[Urdu]] (مندر)<ref name="Shackle1990">{{cite book|last=Shackle|first=C.|title=Hindi and Urdu Since 1800: A Common Reader|date=1 January 1990|publisher=Heritage Publishers|isbn=9788170261629|quote=Specifically Hindu cultural contexts such as the ''pūjā'' 'worship' in the ''mandir'' 'temple' will clearly generate a predominance of Sanskrit vocabulary in Urdu as well as Hindi usage.}}</ref>
* ''Mondir'' (মন্দির) in [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
In Southeast Asia temples known as:
* ''[[Candi of Indonesia|Candi]]'' in [[Indonesia]], especially in [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], used both for Hindu or Buddhist temples.
* ''[[Balinese temple|Pura]]'' in Hindu majority island of [[Bali]], Indonesia.
* ''[[Wat]]'' in [[Cambodia]] and [[Thailand]], also applied to both Hindu and Buddhist temples.
; Temple sites
Some lands, including Varanasi, Puri, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Somnath, Mathura and Rameswara, are considered holy in Hinduism. They are called ''kṣétra'' (Sanskrit: क्षेत्र<ref>Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, [http://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/73.html क्षेत्र] "sacred spot, place of pilgrimage".</ref>). A kṣétra has many temples, including one or more major ones. These temples and its location attracts pilgrimage called tirtha (or tirthayatra).<ref>Knut A. Jacobsen (2012), Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: Salvific Space, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415590389}}</ref>
{{wide image|Konark Temple Panorama2.jpg|800px|Konark Sun Temple panoramic view}}
== See also ==
{{Portal|Religion|Hinduism}}
* [[Dambana]]
* [[List of Shiva temples in India|List of Shiva Temple In India]]
* [[List of Hindu temples]]
* [[List of Hindu temples in India]]
* [[List of Hindu temples outside India]]
* [[List of largest Hindu temples]]
* [[List of largest Hindu ashrams]]
* [[Hindu temple architecture]]
* [[Mandi (Mandaeism)|Mandi]]-Mandaean Temple
* [[Temple]]
* [[Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha|BAPS]]
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Bibliography ==
* Deva, Kṛṣṇa (1995). ''Temples of India''. New Delhi: Aryan Books International.
* Goel, S. R., and Arun Shourie (1992). ''Hindu temples: what happened to them''. New Delhi: Voice of India.
* Kramrisch, Stella ''Hindu Temple'', {{ISBN|978-8120802223}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Meister|first1=Michael W.|doi=10.1179/isr.1985.10.3.248|title=Measurement and Proportion in Hindu Temple Architecture|journal=Interdisciplinary Science Reviews|volume=10|issue=3|pages=248–258|year=1985|bibcode=1985ISRv...10..248M }}
* Meister, Michael W. ''Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture'', {{ISBN|978-0195615371}}
* Michell, George ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms'', {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}
* Ram Rāz, Henry Harkness (1834), {{Google books|cdEDAAAAYAAJ|Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus}}—on Hindu Temple Vimana, Pillars and Śilpa Śastras.
* Nagar, Shanti Lal (1990). ''The temples of Himachal Pradesh''. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
* {{cite book |title=Advanced History of India |first=K.A.Nilakanta |last=Sastri |year=1970 |pages=181–182 |publisher=Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd |location=New Delhi}}
* {{cite book |last=Sircar |first=D.C. |title=Some Epigraphical Records of the Medieval Period from Eastern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-O18xhA_BXUC&pg=PA64 |year=1979 |publisher=Shakti Malik |location=Delhi |isbn=9788170170969}}
== External links ==
* {{commons category-inline|Hindu temples}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
{{Worship in Hinduism}}
{{Place of worship}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hindu Temple}}
[[Category:Hindu temples| ]]
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{{multipleimage
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| total_width = 335px
| footer = Clockwise from top-left: [[Angkor Wat]], [[Cambodia]] (the world's largest religious structure); [[Swaminarayan Akshardham (North America)|Swaminarayan Temple]], [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan area|New Jersey]] (the [[List of largest Hindu temples|largest Hindu temple]] outside Asia); [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath Temple]], [[Odisha]]; [[Besakih Temple]], [[Bali]]; [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Ranganathaswamy Temple]], [[Tamil Nadu]]; [[Pashupatinath Temple]], [[Nepal]]; [[Pandarikulam Amman Kovil]], [[Sri Lanka]]; [[Ram Mandir]], [[Ayodhya]] (highest number of daily visitors)<ref name=CNBC50>{{Cite news|url= https://www.cnbctv18.com/travel/culture/ayodhya-ram-temple-50-million-visitors-expected-each-year-surpassing-tirupati-mecca-and-vatican-18880731.htm |title= Ayodhya's Ram Temple may draw 50 million visitors annually, to surpass Tirupati, Mecca, and Vatican |date= 24 January 2024 |publisher = CNBC|access-date=31 March 2024|quote="Ayodhya's Ram Temple may draw 50 million visitors annually, to surpass Tirupati, Mecca, and Vatican"}}</ref>
| image1 = 20171126 Angkor Wat 4712 DxO.jpg
| image2 = 'Tapomurti Shri Nilkanth Varni'.jpg
| image3 = Shri Jagannatha Temple.jpg
| image4 = Salah Satu Upacara Besar Di Pura Agung Besakih.jpg
| image5 = Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam (49998238702).jpg
| image6 = The Pashupatinath Temple 27.jpg
| image7 = Pandarikulam Amman Kovil.jpg
| image8 = Ram Janmbhoomi Mandir, Ayodhya Dham.jpg
}}
{{Hinduism}}
[[File:Architecture of a Vishnu temple, Nagara style with Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, Garbha Griya, Sikhara, Amalaka, Kalasa marked.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25| Elements in a [[Hindu temple architecture]].]]
A '''Hindu temple''', also known as '''ASS''', '''Devasthanam''', or '''[[Koil]]''', is a sacred place where [[Hindus]] worship and show their devotion to dieties through worship, sacrifice, and devotion. It is considered the house of the god to whom it is dedicated.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Hindu Temple|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NNcXrBlI9S0C|year=1946|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0223-0|pages=135, context: 40–43, 110–114, 129–139 with footnotes}}, Quote: "The [Hindu] temple is the seat and dwelling of God, according to the majority of the [Indian] names" (p. 135); "The temple as Vimana, proportionately measured throughout, is the house and body of God" (p. 133).</ref><ref name="Michell1977p61">{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA61|year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-53230-1|pages=61–62}}; Quote: "The Hindu temple is designed to bring about contact between man and the gods of Hinduism religion" (...) "The architecture of the Hindu temple symbolically represents this quest by setting out to dissolve or decrease the boundaries between man and the divine".</ref> The design, structure and symbolism of Hindu temples are deeply rooted in Vedic traditions, which use circles and squares in their architecture. The temple's design also represents the concept of recursion and the equivalence of the macrocosm and the microcosm through astronomical numbers and specific alignments related to the location of the temple and the connection between the deity and the worshipper.<ref name="stellakvol1">{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Hindu Temple|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NNcXrBlI9S0C|year=1946|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0223-0|pages=19–43, 135–137, context: 129–144 with footnotes}}</ref><ref>[[Subhash Kak]], "The axis and the perimeter of the temple." Kannada Vrinda Seminar Sangama 2005 held at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles on 19 November 2005.</ref><ref>Subhash Kak, "Time, space and structure in ancient India." Conference on Sindhu-Sarasvati Valley Civilization: A Reappraisal, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, 21 & 22 February 2009.</ref> A temple incorporates all elements of the Hindu cosmos — presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of the Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life — symbolically presenting [[dharma]], [[artha]], [[kama]], [[moksha]], and [[karma]].<ref>[[Stella Kramrisch]], ''The Hindu Temple'', Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, pp. 346-357 and 423-424</ref><ref>[[Klaus Klostermaier]], "The Divine Presence in Space and Time – Murti, Tirtha, Kala"; in ''A Survey of Hinduism'', {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7082-4}}, State University of New York Press, pp. 268-277.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA61|year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-53230-1|pages=61–76}}</ref>
The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient Sanskrit texts of India (for example, the [[Veda]]s and [[Upanishad]]s), while their structural rules are described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture ([[Varāhamihira|Bṛhat Saṃhitā]], [[Vastu shastra|Vāstu Śāstras]]).<ref name=susanlchap4 /><ref>M.R. Bhat (1996), ''Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira'', {{ISBN|978-8120810600}}, Motilal Banarsidass</ref> The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and the economy have flourished.<ref name=bstein /><ref>George Michell (1988), ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}, pp. 58-65.</ref>
Hindu temples come in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs,<ref>Alice Boner (1990), ''Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period'', {{ISBN|978-8120807051}}, see Introduction and pp. 36-37.</ref> yet almost all of them share certain core ideas, symbolism and themes. They are found in South Asia, particularly [[India]] and [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]], in Southeast Asian countries such as [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Indonesia]],<ref>Francis Ching et al., ''A Global History of Architecture'', Wiley, {{ISBN|978-0470402573}}, pp. 227-302.</ref><ref>Brad Olsen (2004), ''Sacred Places Around the World: 108 Destinations'', {{ISBN|978-1888729108}}, pp. 117-119.</ref> and countries such as [[Canada]], [[Fiji]], [[France]], [[Guyana]], [[Kenya]], [[Mauritius]], the [[Netherlands]], [[South Africa]], [[Suriname]], [[Tanzania]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Uganda]], the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and other countries with a significant Hindu population.<ref>Paul Younger, ''New Homelands: Hindu Communities'', {{ISBN|978-0195391640}}, Oxford University Press</ref> The current state and outer appearance of Hindu temples reflect arts, materials and designs as they evolved over two millennia; they also reflect the effect of conflicts between [[Hinduism and Islam]] since the 12th century.<ref>Several books and journal articles have documented the effect on Hindu temples of Islam's arrival in South Asia and Southeast Asia:
* {{cite journal |last=Gaborieau |first=Marc |date=1985 |title=From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: idiom, ritual and ideology of the Hindu-Muslim confrontation in South Asia |journal=Anthropology Today |publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.2307/3033123 |jstor=3033123}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Eaton | first1 = Richard | year = 2000 | title = Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States | journal = Journal of Islamic Studies | volume = 11 | issue = 3| pages = 283–319 | doi = 10.1093/jis/11.3.283 | doi-access = free }}
* [[Annemarie Schimmel]], ''Islam in the Indian Subcontinent'', {{ISBN|978-9004061170}}, Brill Academic, Chapter 1
* Robert W. Hefner, ''Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691050461}}, pp. 28-29.</ref> The [[Swaminarayan Akshardham (North America)|Swaminarayanan Akshardham]] in [[Robbinsville, New Jersey|Robbinsville]], [[New Jersey]] between the [[New York metropolitan area|New York]] and [[Delaware Valley|Philadelphia]] metropolitan areas, was inaugurated in 2014 as one of the world's largest Hindu temples.<ref name=LargestHinduTempleNJ>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/worlds-largest-hindu-temple-being-built-new-jersey-n166616|title=World's Largest Hindu Temple Being Built in New Jersey|author=Frances Kai-Hwa Wang|author-link=Frances Kai-Hwa Wang |publisher=NBC News|date=28 July 2014|access-date=3 December 2016}}</ref>
==Significance and meaning of a temple==
A Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of [[dharma]], beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man, deities, and the Universal ''Puruṣa'' in a sacred space.<ref name=gmichell88>George Michell (1988), ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}, Chapter 1</ref> It represents the triple-knowledge (trayi-[[Vidya (philosophy)|vidya]]) of the Vedic vision by mapping the relationships between the cosmos ([[World egg|brahmaṇḍa]]) and the cell (pinda) by a unique plan based on astronomical numbers.<ref>Subhash Kak, "Time, space and structure in ancient India." Conference on Sindhu-Sarasvati Valley Civilization: A Reappraisal, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, 21 & 22 February 2009. {{ArXiv|0903.3252}}</ref> Subhash Kak sees the temple form and its iconography to be a natural expansion of Vedic ideology related to recursion, change and equivalence.<ref>Kak, S. Early Indian architecture and art. Migration and Diffusion. vol.6, pp. 6-27 (2005)</ref>
[[File:81 grid Parama Sayika design Hindu Temple Floor Plan Vastu Purusa Mandala Ancient Architecture.svg|thumb|360px|The 9x9 (81) grid "Parama Sayika" layout plan (above) found in large ceremonial Hindu Temples. It is one of many grids used to build Hindu temples. In this structure of symmetry, each concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer, ''Paisachika padas'', signifies aspects of Asuras and evil; while the inner ''Devika padas'' layer signifies aspects of Devas and good. In between the good and evil is the concentric layer of ''Manusha padas'', signifying human life. All these layers surround ''Brahma padas'', which signifies creative energy and the site for a temple's primary ''murti'' for darsana. Finally at the very center of the ''Brahma padas'' is the ''Garbhagriha'' (Purusa Space), signifying the Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.<ref name=stellakvol1 />]] In ancient Indian texts, a temple is a place of pilgrimage, known in India as a ''[[Tirtha and Kshetra|Tirtha]]''.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> It is a sacred site whose ambience and design attempts to symbolically condense the ideal tenets of the Hindu way of life.<ref name=gmichell88 /> In a Hindu temple, all the cosmic components that produce and maintain life are there, from fire to water, from depictions of the natural world to gods, from genders that are feminine or masculine to those that are everlasting and universal.
Susan Lewandowski states<ref name=susanlchap4>Susan Lewandowski, "The Hindu Temple in South India", in ''Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment'', Anthony D. King (Ed.), {{ISBN|978-0710202345}}, Routledge, Chapter 4</ref> that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is the belief that all things are one, that everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64-grid or 81-grid mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life – the pursuit of ''[[artha]]'' (prosperity, wealth), of ''[[kama]]'' (pleasure, sex), of ''[[dharma]]'' (virtues, ethical life) and of ''[[moksha]]'' (release, self-knowledge).<ref>Alain Daniélou (2001), ''The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism,'' translated from French to English by Ken Hurry, {{ISBN|0-89281-854-9}}, pp. 101-127.</ref><ref>Samuel Parker (2010), "Ritual as a Mode of Production: Ethnoarchaeology and Creative Practice in Hindu Temple Arts", ''South Asian Studies'', 26(1), pp. 31-57; Michael Rabe, "Secret Yantras and Erotic Display for Hindu Temples", (Editor: David White), {{ISBN|978-8120817784}}, ''Princeton University Readings in Religion'' (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers), Chapter 25, pp. 435-446.</ref> At the centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the [[deity]], is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing ''Purusa'', the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is omnipresent, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger the process of inner realization within the devotee.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> The specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum.<ref>{{cite book| author=Antonio Rigopoulos| title=Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara: A Study of the Transformative and bums Inclusive Character of a Multi-faceted Hindu Deity| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZM-BlvaqAf0C |year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press| isbn=978-0-7914-3696-7| pages=223–224, 243}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author=Alain Daniélou| title=The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09qUXlCkyVIC| year=2001| publisher=Inner Traditions| isbn=978-0-89281-854-9| pages=69–71}}</ref>
In Hindu tradition, there is no dividing line between the [[secular]] and the lonely sacred.<ref name=susanlchap4 /> In the same spirit, Hindu temples are not just sacred spaces; they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and purpose have extended beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus a social meaning. Some temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to celebrate arts through dance and music, to get married or commemorate marriages,<ref>Pyong Gap Min, "Religion and Maintenance of Ethnicity among Immigrants – A Comparison of Indian Hindus and Korean Protestants", in ''Immigrant Faiths'', Karen Leonard (Ed.), {{ISBN|978-0759108165}}, Chapter 6, pp. 102-103.</ref> the birth of a child, other significant life events or the death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu temples have served as a venue for succession within dynasties and landmarks around which economic activity thrived.<ref name="Susan Lewandowski pp 71-73">Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor), {{ISBN|978-0710202345}}, Routledge, pp. 71-73.</ref>
== Forms and designs of Hindu temples ==
{{Main|Hindu temple architecture}}
[[File:Besakih Bali Indonesia Pura-Besakih-02.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Besakih Temple]] in [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]]]]
Almost all Hindu temples take two forms: a house or a palace. A house-themed temple is a simple shelter that serves as a deity's home. The temple is a place where the devotee visits, just like he or she would visit a friend or relative. The use of moveable and immoveable [[murti|images]] is mentioned by [[Pāṇini]]. In the [[Bhakti]] school of Hinduism, temples are venues for [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]], which is a hospitality ritual, where the deity is honored, and where devotee calls upon, attends to and connects with the deity. In other schools of Hinduism, the person may simply perform ''[[japa]]'', or meditation, or [[yoga]], or introspection in his or her temple. Palace-themed temples often incorporate more elaborate and monumental architecture.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hindu Temple – Vishva Hindu Parishad – Thailand|url=https://vhpthailand.org/hindu-temple/|access-date=2021-04-13|language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Site ===
The appropriate site for a temple, suggests ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, and where animals rest without fear of injury or harm.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.<ref name=stellakvol1 /><ref name=susanlchap4 />
[[File:View of Bhutanatha temple in Badami during monsoon.jpg|thumb|400px|Hindu temple sites cover a wide range. The most common sites are those near water bodies, embedded in nature, such as the [[Bhutanatha group of temples, Badami|Bhutanatha temple complex]] at [[Badami]], which is next to a [[waterfall]].]]
{{Blockquote|
1=<poem>
The gods always play where lakes are,
where the sun's rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters,
and where clear waterpaths are made by swans
whose breasts toss the white lotus hither and thither,
where swans, ducks, curleys and paddy birds are heard,
and animals rest nearby in the shade of Nicula trees on the river banks.
The gods always play where rivers have for their braclets
the sound of curleys and the voice of swans for their speech,
water as their garment, carps for their zone,
the flowering trees on their banks as earrings,
the confluence of rivers as their hips,
raised sand banks as breasts and plumage of swans their mantle.
The gods always play where groves are near, rivers, mountains and springs, and in towns with pleasure gardens.
</poem>
|2=[[Varāhamihira]], ''Brhat Samhita'' 1.60.4-8|3=6th century CE<ref>[[Stella Kramrisch]], The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, page 4</ref>
}}
While major Hindu temples are recommended at sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, ''Brhat Samhita'' and ''Puranas'' suggest temples may also be built where a natural source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is symbolically present at the consecration of the temple or the deity. Temples may also be built, suggests ''Visnudharmottara'' in Part III of Chapter 93,<ref>[[Stella Kramrisch]], The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, page 5-6</ref> inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, on mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.
=== Manuals ===
Ancient builders of Hindu temples created manuals of architecture, called ''[[Vastu shastra|Vastu-Sastra]]'' (literally "science" of dwelling; ''vas-tu'' is a composite Sanskrit word; ''vas'' means "reside", ''tu'' means "you"); these contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling)<ref name=bbdutt>BB Dutt (1925), {{Google books|J3jEJFNxdy4C|Town planning in Ancient India}}, {{ISBN|978-81-8205-487-5}}; See critical review by LD Barnett, ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', Vol. 4, Issue 2, June 1926, pp. 391.</ref> and ''Sastra'' meaning system or knowledge in Sanskrit. There exist many Vastu-Sastras on the art of building temples, such as one by [[Thakkura Pheru]], describing where and how temples should be built.<ref name=stellakramrisch76>Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1 & 2, {{ISBN|81-208-0223-3}}</ref><ref>Jack Hebner (2010), Architecture of the Vastu Sastra – According to Sacred Science, in Science of the Sacred (Editor: David Osborn), {{ISBN|978-0557277247}}, pp. 85-92; N Lahiri (1996), Archaeological landscapes and textual images: a study of the sacred geography of late medieval Ballabgarh, ''World Archaeology'', 28(2), pp. 244-264</ref> Sanskrit manuals have been found in India since the 6th century CE.<ref>Susan Lewandowski (1984), Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, edited by Anthony D. King, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0710202345}}, Chapter 4</ref> Vastu-Sastra manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning,<ref name=bbdutt /> and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature.<ref name="Sherri Silverman 2007">Sherri Silverman (2007), Vastu: Transcendental Home Design in Harmony with Nature, Gibbs Smith, Utah, {{ISBN|978-1423601326}}</ref><ref>G. D. Vasudev (2001), Vastu, Motilal Banarsidas, {{ISBN|81-208-1605-6}}, pp. 74-92.</ref> While it is unclear, states Barnett,<ref>LD Barnett, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol 4, Issue 2, June 1926, pp. 391.</ref> as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice, the manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life.<ref name=bbdutt />
[[File:Plan of Kandariya Mahadeva temple.jpg|thumb|250px|Ancient India produced many Sanskrit manuals for Hindu temple design and construction, covering arrangement of spaces (above) to every aspect of its completion. Yet, the Silpins were given wide latitude to experiment and express their creativity.<ref name=mmgeometry />]]
The ''Silpa Prakasa'' of Odisha, authored by Ramacandra Bhattaraka Kaulacara in the 9th or 10th centuries CE, is another Sanskrit treatise on Temple Architecture.<ref name=aliceboner66>Alice Boner and Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā (1966), {{Google books|itQUAAAAIAAJ|Silpa Prakasa Medieval Orissan Sanskrit Text on Temple Architecture}}, E.J. Brill (Netherlands)</ref> Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in the eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example, in the ''Saurastra'' tradition of temple building found in western states of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of ''Nataka-stri'' compared to 16 types described in ''Silpa Prakasa''.<ref name=aliceboner66 /> Silpa Prakasa provides a brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as ''Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana'' compiled by Daniel Smith<ref>H. Daniel Smith (1963), Ed. Pāncarātra prasāda prasādhapam, A Pancaratra Text on Temple-Building, Syracuse: University of Rochester, {{OCLC|68138877}}</ref> and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara<ref>Mahanti and Mahanty (1995 Reprint), Śilpa Ratnākara, Orissa Akademi, {{OCLC|42718271}}</ref> provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types.
Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's ''Prasadamandana'' (literally, manual for planning and building a temple).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sinha | first1 = Amita | year = 1998 | title = Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras | journal = Journal of Cultural Geography | volume = 17 | issue = 2| pages = 27–41 | doi = 10.1080/08873639809478319 }}</ref> ''Manasara'', a text of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by the 7th century CE, is a guidebook on South Indian temple design and construction.<ref name=susanlchap4 /><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tillotson | first1 = G. H. R. | year = 1997 | title = Svastika Mansion: A Silpa-Sastra in the 1930s | journal = South Asian Studies | volume = 13 | issue = 1| pages = 87–97 | doi = 10.1080/02666030.1997.9628528 }}</ref> ''Isanasivagurudeva paddhati'' is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of temple building in India in south and central India.<ref name=skramrisch1958 /><ref>Ganapati Sastri (1920), Īśānaśivagurudeva paddhati, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, {{OCLC|71801033}}</ref> In north India, ''Brihat-samhita'' by [[Varāhamihira]] is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction of ''Nagara'' style of Hindu temples.<ref name=mmgeometry>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael |date=1983 |title=Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages= 266–296 |doi=10.2307/3249613 |jstor=3249613}}</ref><ref name=hgood /><ref>H, Kern (1865), [http://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/BrhatSamhitaSanskrit.pdf The Brhat Sanhita of Varaha-mihara], The Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta</ref>
=== Plan ===
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| title = Plan
| image1 = Plan-temple-konarak.png
| caption1 = Elements of a Hindu temple in Kalinga style. There are many Hindu temple styles, but they almost universally share common geometric principles, symbolism of ideas, and expression of core beliefs.<ref name=stellakvol1 />
| image2 = 64 grid Manduka design Hindu Temple Floor Plan Vastu Purusa Mandala Ancient Architecture.svg
| caption2 = The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron center, where diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.<ref name=stellakvol1 /><ref name=mmgeometry />
}}
A Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design called ''vastu-purusha-mandala''. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. ''Mandala'' means circle, ''Purusha'' is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while ''Vastu'' means the dwelling structure.<ref name=sl6869>Susan Lewandowski, ''The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment'', Anthony D. King (ed.), {{ISBN|978-0710202345}}, Routledge, pp. 68-69.</ref> The Vastu-purusha-mandala is a [[yantra]],<ref name=stellakramrisch76 /> a design laying out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.
The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of the mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while the circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> The square is divided into perfect 64 (or in some cases 81) sub-squares called padas.<ref name=mmgeometry /><ref>The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from the fire altar to [[Agni]]. The alignment along cardinal directions, similarly, is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the [[gnomon]]. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, or make offerings with the Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas lacks the central core, and is also a meditative constructive. The 9-pada design has a sacred surrounded center, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastu-mandalas may use the 9- through 49-pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called ''Manduka'', ''Bhekapada'' or ''Ajira'' in various ancient Sanskrit texts.</ref> Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity. The central square(s) of the 64- or 81-grid is dedicated to [[Brahman]] (not to be confused with brahmin, the scholarly and priestly class in India), and are called ''Brahma padas''.
The 49-grid design is called ''Sthandila'' and is of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in South India, particularly in ''Prakaras''.<ref>In addition to a square four-sided layout, the ''Brhat Samhita'' also describes Vastu and mandala design principles based on a perfect triangle (3), hexagon (6), octagon (8) and hexadecagon (16) sided layouts, according to Stella Kramrisch.</ref> The symmetric Vastu-purusa-mandala grids are sometimes combined to form a temple superstructure with two or more attached squares.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rian | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho | journal = Building and Environment | volume = 42 | issue = 12| pages = 4093–4107 | doi = 10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028 }}</ref> The temples face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala pada facing sunrise is dedicated to [[Surya]], the sun-god. The ''Surya pada'' is flanked by the padas of Satya, the deity of Truth, on one side and [[Indra]], the king of the demigods, on other. The east and north faces of most temples feature a mix of gods and demigods; while the west and south feature demons and demigods related to the underworld.<ref>Stella Kramrisch (1976), ''The Hindu Temple'', Volume 1, {{ISBN|81-208-0223-3}}</ref> This ''vastu-purusha-mandala'' plan and symbolism is systematically seen in ancient Hindu temples on the Indian subcontinent as well as those in southeast Asia, with regional creativity and variations.<ref>Datta and Beynon (2011), [http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30045633/beynon-earlyconnections-2011.pdf "Early Connections: Reflections on the canonical lineage of Southeast Asian temples"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101062440/http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30045633/beynon-earlyconnections-2011.pdf |date=1 November 2018 }}, in ''EAAC 2011: South of East Asia: Re-addressing East Asian Architecture and Urbanism: Proceedings of the East Asian Architectural Culture International Conference'', Department of Architecture, National University of Singapore, Singapore, pp. 1-17</ref><ref>V.S. Pramar, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250257 Some Evidence on the Wooden Origins of the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala],''Artibus Asiae'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (1985), pp. 305-311.</ref>
Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the all-pervasive, all-connecting Universal Spirit, the [[Brahman|highest reality]], the ''purusha''.<ref>This concept has equivalence to the concept of [[Acintya]], or Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa, in Balinese Hindu temples; elsewhere it has been referred to as [[satcitananda]]</ref> This space is sometimes known as the ''garbha-griya'' (literally, “womb house”) – a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence.<ref name=sl6869 /> In or near this space is typically a cult image — which, though many Indians may refer to casually as an idol, is more formally known as a ''murti,'' or the main worshippable deity, who varies with each temple. Often this ''murti'' gives the temple a local name, such as a [[Vishnu]] temple, [[Krishna]] temple, [[Rama]] temple, [[Narayana]] temple, [[Shiva]] temple, [[Lakshmi]] temple, [[Ganesha]] temple, [[Durga]] temple, [[Hanuman]] temple, Surya temple, etc.<ref name=gmichell88 /> It is this [[Garbhagriha|garbha-griya]] which devotees seek for ''[[Darshana|darsana]]'' (literally, a sight of knowledge,<ref>Stella Kramrisch (1976), ''The Hindu Temple'', Vol. 1, {{ISBN|81-208-0223-3}}, p. 8.</ref> or vision<ref name=sl6869 />).
Above the ''vastu-purusha-mandala'' is a superstructure with a dome called ''[[Shikhara]]'' in north India, and ''[[Vimana (tower)|Vimana]]'' in south India, that stretches towards the sky.<ref name=sl6869 /> Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the dome may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, a cone or other mountain-like shape, once again using the principle of concentric circles and squares.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> Scholars suggest that this shape is inspired by the cosmic mountain of Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of the gods, according to Vedic mythology.<ref name=sl6869 />
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| width = 150
| footer = A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.<ref name=stellakvol1 /><ref name=mwmmountain />
| image1 = Circle and squares in Hindu temple Spires Vastu Purusa Mandala.svg
| image2 = Hindu temple Spire design principle concentric circles squares Vastu Purusa Mandala without label.svg
}}
In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa, the universal essence.<ref name=stellakvol1 /> Often this space is visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images may be stories from Hindu Epics; in others, they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice; in yet others, they may be ''murtis'' of locally worshipped deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life – kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is called ''pradakshina''.<ref name=sl6869 />
Large temples also have pillared halls, called ''mandapa'' — one of which, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The ''mandapa'' may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega-temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure,<ref name="Trivedi, K. 1989">Trivedi, K. (1989). "Hindu temples: models of a fractal universe." ''The Visual Computer,'' 5(4), 243-258</ref> each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as "an organism of repeating cells".<ref name="Susan Lewandowski pp 71-73" />
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| width1 = 200
| width2 = 174
| footer = An illustration of Hindu temple Spires (''Shikhara, Vimana'') built using concentric circles and the rotating-squares principle. The left one is from Vijayanagar in [[Karnataka]], and the right one is from Pushkar in [[Rajasthan]].
| image1 = 1 Virupaksha temple Gopuram Hampi Vijayanagar India.jpg
| image2 = Hindu Temple, Pushkar (7438731182).jpg
}}
The ancient texts on Hindu temple design, the ''Vāstu-puruṣa-mandala'' and ''Vastu Śāstras'', do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple.<ref>S. Bafna, "On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition," ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'', Vol. 59, No. 1 (Mar., 2000), pp. 26-49</ref> They describe the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature.<ref name=stellakvol1 /><ref name="Sherri Silverman 2007" />
;Exceptions to the square grid principle
A predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect-square grid principle.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=April–June 1979 |title=Maṇḍala and Practice in Nāgara Architecture in North India |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=204–219 |doi=10.2307/602657 |jstor=602657}}</ref> However, there are some exceptions. For example, the [[Teli ka Mandir|Telika]] Mandir in [[Gwalior]], built in the 8th century CE, is not a square but a rectangle in 2:3 proportion. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting that the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at the Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and at the Nakti-Mata temple near [[Jaipur]], Rajasthan. [[Michael W. Meister|Michael Meister]] suggests that these exceptions mean that the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.<ref name=mmgeometry />
=== Symbolism ===
[[File:Chaturbhuj Temple, Orchha.jpg|right|thumb|[[Chaturbhuj Temple (Orchha)|Chaturbhuj Temple]] at [[Orchha]], is noted for having one of the [[List of tallest Gopurams#Tallest Vimana|tallest Vimana]] among Hindu temples standing at 344 feet.]]
A Hindu temple is a symbolic reconstruction of the universe and the universal principles that enable everything in it to function.<ref name=stellakvol1011>Stella Kramrisch, ''The Hindu Temple'', Vol. 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, pp. 10-11.</ref><ref>George Michell (1988), ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}, pp. 21-22.</ref> The temples reflect Hindu philosophy and its diverse views on the cosmos and on truth.<ref name="Trivedi, K. 1989" /><ref>Edmund Leach, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3629670 "The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture"], ''Journal of Anthropological Research'', Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn 1983), pp. 243-264.</ref>
Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet nor any binding holy book save the Vedas; Hindus can choose to be [[Polytheism|polytheistic]], [[Pantheism|pantheistic]], [[Monism|monistic]], or [[Atheism|atheistic]].<ref>See:
* [[Julius J. Lipner]], ''Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', 2nd Edition, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-45677-7}}, page 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.";
* Lester Kurtz (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict'', {{ISBN|978-0123695031}}, Academic Press, 2008;
* MK Gandhi, [http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf ''The Essence of Hinduism''], Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see p. 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."</ref> Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as ''kṣaitrajña'' (Sanskrit: क्षैत्रज्ञ)<ref>Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, [http://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/73.html क्षैत्रज्ञ] Jim Funderburk and Peter Scharf (2012); Quote:
* क्षैत्रज्ञ [ ''kṣaitrajña'' ] n. ( fr. [ ''kṣetra-jñá'' ] g. [ ''yuvādi'' ], spirituality, nature of the soul Lit. W.; the knowledge of the soul Lit. W.</ref>). It defines spiritual practice as one's journey towards ''[[moksha]]'', awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and content.<ref>See the following two in Ewert Cousins's series on World Spirituality:
* Bhavasar and Kiem, "Spirituality and Health", in ''Hindu Spirituality'', Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), {{ISBN|0-8245-0755-X}}, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp. 319-337;
* John Arapura, "Spirit and Spiritual Knowledge in the Upanishads", in ''Hindu Spirituality'', Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), {{ISBN|0-8245-0755-X}}, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp. 64-85.</ref><ref name=gf>Gavin Flood, ''Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, {{ISBN|978-90-04-17893-9}}, see Article on ''Wisdom and Knowledge'', pp. 881-884.</ref> A Hindu temple reflects these core beliefs. The central core of almost all Hindu temples is not a large communal space; the temple is designed for the individual, a couple or a family – a small, private space to allow visitors to experience ''darsana''.
''Darsana'' is itself a symbolic word. In ancient Hindu scripts, ''darsana'' is the name of six methods or alternate viewpoints of understanding truth.<ref name=skv189>[[Stella Kramrisch]], ''The Hindu Temple'', Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, pp. 8-9.</ref> These are ''Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa'' and ''Vedanta'' – which flowered into individual schools of Hinduism, each of which is considered a valid, alternate path to understanding truth and achieving self-realization in the Hindu way of life.
From names to forms, from images to stories carved into the walls of a temple, symbolism is everywhere in a Hindu temple. Life principles such as the pursuit of joy, connection and emotional pleasure (kama) are fused into mystical, erotic and architectural forms in Hindu temples. These motifs and principles of human life are part of the sacred texts of the Hindus, such as its Upanishads; the temples express these same principles in a different form, through art and spaces. For example, ''Brihadaranyaka Upanisad'' (4.3.21) recites:
{{Blockquote|
1=<poem>
In the embrace of the beloved, one forgets the whole world, everything both within and without;
in the same way, one who embraces the Self knows neither within nor without.
</poem>
|2=[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]|3=7th century BCE<ref>Michael Rabe (1996), [http://asiatica.org/ijts/vol2_no2/sexual-imagery-phantasmagorical-castles-khajuraho/#fn35up "Sexual Imagery on the 'Phantasmagorical Castles' at Khajuraho – The Artha of Temple Kama"], ''International Journal of Tantric Studies'', Vol. 2, No. 2.</ref>
}}
The architecture of Hindu temples is also symbolic. The whole structure fuses the daily life and its surroundings with the divine concepts, through a structure that is open yet raised on a terrace, transitioning from the secular towards the sacred,<ref name=eleach1983 /> inviting the visitor inwards and upwards towards the ''Brahma pada,'' the temple's central core, a symbolic space marked by its spire (''shikhara, vimana''). The ancient temples had grand, intricately carved entrances but no doors, and they lacked a boundary wall. In most cultures, suggests [[Edmund Leach]],<ref name=eleach1983>E Leach, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3629670 "The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture"], ''Journal of Anthropological Research'', Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn, 1983), pp. 249-250.</ref> a boundary and gateway separates the secular and the sacred, and this gateway door is grand. In Hindu tradition, this is discarded in favor of an open and diffusive architecture, where the secular world was not separated from the sacred, but transitioned and flowed into the sacred.<ref>Mary Beth Heston, "Iconographic Themes of the Gopura of the Kailāsanātha Temple at Ellora", ''Artibus Asiae'', Vol. 43, No. 3 (1981–1982), pp. 219-235.</ref> The Hindu temple has structural walls, which were patterned usually within the 64-grid, or other geometric layouts. Yet the layout was open on all sides, except for the core space with a single opening for darsana. The temple space is laid out in a series of courts (''mandapas''). The outermost regions may incorporate the negative and suffering side of life with the symbolism of evil, ''asuras'' and ''rakshashas''; but in small temples this layer is dispensed with. When present, this outer region diffuse into the next inner layer that bridges as human space, followed by another inner ''Devika padas'' space and symbolic arts incorporating the positive and joyful side of life about the good and the gods. This divine space then concentrically diffuses inwards and lifts the guest to the core of the temple, where resides the main ''murti'', as well as the space for the ''Purusa,'' and ideas held to be most sacred principles in Hindu tradition. The symbolism in the arts and temples of Hinduism, suggests Edmund Leach, is similar to those in Christianity and other major religions of the world.<ref>E Leach, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3629670 "The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture"], ''Journal of Anthropological Research'', Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn, 1983), pp. 262.</ref>
=== Building teams ===
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=300
| image1 = 6th-century Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, 1279 CE Hindu text palm leaf manuscript, Pratima lakshana, Sanskrit, Nepalaksara script, folio 1 talapatra from a Buddhist monastery, 1v, 2r 2v leaves.jpg
| image2 = 6th-century Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, Hindu text copied and preserved in a Jain temple, paper manuscript, Sanskrit, Devanagari script, incomplete folio 1r 1v 2r leaves.jpg
| image3 = 6th-century Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, Bhattotpala commentary manuscript, Chapter 3, Sanskrit, Grantha script, palm leaf 1 2r 2v.jpg
| footer = The 6th-century ''Brihat samhita'' is a Sanskrit encyclopedia. Its chapters 57-60 discuss different styles and design of Hindu temples. Above: the text and commentary in Nepalaksara, Devanagari and Tamil Grantha scripts.
}}
Indian texts call the craftsmen and builders of temples "Silpin" (Sanskrit: शिल्पिन्<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=shilpin+&trans=Translate&direction=AU zilpin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314060105/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?beginning=0+&direction=au&script=hk&tinput=shilpin+&trans=translate |date=14 March 2016 }} University of Cologne, Germany</ref>), derived from "Silpa".<ref name=sparker1987>Samuel Parker (1987), "Artistic practice and education in India: A historical overview", ''Journal of Aesthetic Education'', pp. 123-141.</ref> One of the earliest mentions of the Sanskrit word "Silpa" is in [[Atharvaveda]], from about 1000 BCE; according to scholars, the word was used to denote any work of art.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Coomaraswamy | first1 = Ananda | year = 1928 | title = Indian Architectural Terms | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 48 | page = 269 | doi = 10.2307/593145 | jstor = 593145 }}</ref> Some scholars suggest that the word "Silpa" has no direct or one-word translation in English, nor does the word "Silpin". "Silpa", explains Stella Kramrisch,<ref name=skramrisch1958>Stella Kramrisch (1958), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/538558 Traditions of the Indian Craftsman], The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 71, No. 281, (Jul. - Sep., 1958), pp. 224-230</ref> is a multicolored word and incorporates art, skill, craft, ingenuity, imagination, form, expression and inventiveness of any art or craft. Similarly, "Shilpin", notes Kramrisch, is a complex Sanskrit word, describing any person who embodies art, science, culture, skill, and rhythm and employs creative principles to produce any divine form of expression. Silpins who built Hindu temples, as well as the artworks and sculptures within them, were considered by the ancient Sanskrit texts to deploy arts whose number are unlimited, Kala (techniques) that were 64 in number,<ref>Vatsyayana, Kamasutra I.3, Jayamangala</ref> and Vidya (science) that were of 32 types.<ref name=skramrisch1958 />
The Hindu manuals of temple construction describe the education, characteristics of good artists and architects. The general education of a Hindu Shilpin in ancient India included Lekha or Lipi (alphabet, reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana (arithmetic). These were imparted from age 5 to 12. The advanced students would continue in higher stages of Shilpa Sastra studies till the age of 25.<ref>Stella Kramrisch, ''The Hindu Temple'', Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, pp. 11.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Misra | first1 = R. N. | year = 2011 | title = Silpis in Ancient India: Beyond their Ascribed Locus in Ancient Society | journal = Social Scientist | volume = 39 | issue = 7/8| pages = 43–54 }}</ref> Apart from specialist technical competence, the manuals suggest that best Silpins for building a Hindu temple are those who know the essence of Vedas and Agamas, consider themselves as students, keep well verse with principles of traditional sciences and mathematics, painting and geography.<ref name=stellakramrisch76 /> Further they are kind, free from jealousy, righteous, have their sense under control, of happy disposition, and ardent in everything they do.<ref name=skramrisch1958 />
According to Silparatna, a Hindu temple project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and include a Sthapaka (guru, spiritual guide and architect-priest), a Sthapati (architect) who would design the building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons, painters, plasterers, overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors).<ref name=stellakramrisch76 /><ref name=hgood>Heather Elgood (2000), ''Hinduism and the religious arts'', {{ISBN|978-0304707393}}, Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 121-125.</ref> While the temple is under construction, all those working on the temple were revered and considered sacerdotal by the patron as well as others witnessing the construction.<ref name=sparker1987 /> Further, it was a tradition that all tools and materials used in temple building and all creative work had the sanction of a sacrament.<ref name=stellakramrisch76 /> For example, if a carpenter or sculptor needed to fell a tree or cut a rock from a hill, he would propitiate the tree or rock with prayers, seeking forgiveness for cutting it from its surroundings, and explaining his intent and purpose. The axe used to cut the tree would be anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the tree.<ref name=skramrisch1958 /> Even in modern times, in some parts of India such as [[Odisha]], Visvakarma Puja is a ritual festival every year where the craftsmen and artists worship their arts, tools and materials.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Joshi | year = 2013 | title = Boon of astronomy: Rituals and religious festivals in Odisha for a peaceful society | journal = International Journal of Physical and Social Sciences | volume = 3 | issue = 5| pages = 162–176 }}</ref>
== Social functions of Hindu temples ==
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
| image1 = Shiva temple with trident standard Audumbara State Punjab 1st century BCE.jpg|caption1=Hindu Shiva temple depicted in a coin from the [[1st century BC|1st century BCE]].
| image2 = Keshav Narayan chowk, Patan Durbar Square, Lalitpur, Nepal.jpg|caption2=Example of a Hindu temple constructed in the same manner as the one depicted in the coin.
}}
Hindu temples served as nuclei of important social, economic, artistic and intellectual functions in ancient and medieval India.<ref name=michelltempleschool>George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}, pages 58-60</ref><ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 166-193</ref> [[Burton Stein]] states that South Indian temples managed regional development function, such as irrigation projects, land reclamation, post-disaster relief and recovery. These activities were paid for by the donations (melvarum) they collected from devotees.<ref name=bstein>Burton Stein, "The Economic Function of a Medieval South Indian Temple", ''The Journal of Asian Studies'', Vol. 19 (February 1960), pp. 163-76.</ref> According to James Heitzman, these donations came from a wide spectrum of the Indian society, ranging from kings, queens, officials in the kingdom to merchants, priests and shepherds.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Heitzman | first=James | title=Temple Urbanism in Medieval South India | journal=The Journal of Asian Studies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | volume=46 | issue=4 | year=1987 | doi=10.2307/2057102 | pages=791–826, see Table 1 on p. 805 for an illustrative tabulated distribution| jstor=2057102 | s2cid=154068714 }}</ref> Temples also managed lands endowed to it by its devotees upon their death. They would provide employment to the poorest.<ref>T Mahalingam (1951), ''Economic life in the Vijayanagar Empire'', University of Madras, pp. 490-498.</ref> Some temples had large treasury, with gold and silver coins, and these temples served as banks.<ref>Burton Stein (4 February 1961), The state, the temple and agriculture development, ''The Economic Weekly Annual'', pp. 179-187.</ref>
[[File:Sripuram Temple Full View.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Golden Temple, Sripuram|The Golden Temple]] at [[Vellore]] is gilded with 1500 kg of pure gold.]]
Hindu temples over time became wealthy from grants and donations from royal patrons as well as private individuals. Major temples became employers and patrons of economic activity. They sponsored land reclamation and infrastructure improvements, states Michell, including building facilities such as water tanks, irrigation canals and new roads.<ref name=michell58/> A very detailed early record from 1101 lists over 600 employees (excluding the priests) of the [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur]], still one of the largest temples in [[Tamil Nadu]]. Most worked part-time and received the use of temple farmland as reward.<ref name=michell58>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA59 |year=1977| publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn= 978-0-226-53230-1|pages=58–59}}</ref> For those thus employed by the temple, according to Michell, "some gratuitous services were usually considered obligatory, such as dragging the temple chariots on festival occasions and helping when a large building project was undertaken".<ref name="michell58"/> Temples also acted as refuge during times of political unrest and danger.<ref name=michell58/>
In contemporary times, the process of building a Hindu temple by emigrants and diasporas from South Asia has also served as a process of building a community, a social venue to network, reduce prejudice and seek civil rights together.<ref>See:
* Diana L. Eck (2000), "Negotiating Hindu Identities in the US", in [[Harold Coward]], John R. Hinnells, and Raymond Brady Williams (Editors) – The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and the United States, SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-4509-9}}, 219–237
* [[Marion O'Callaghan]] (1998), "Hinduism in the Indian Diaspora in Trinidad", ''Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies'', Vol. 11, Article 5, doi 10.7825/2164-6279.1178
* Chandra Jayawardena, "Religious Belief and Social Change: Aspects of the Development of Hinduism in British Guiana", ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'', Vol. 8, No. 2 (January 1966), pp. 211-240.</ref>
=== Library of manuscripts ===
{{Infobox
| title = Types of Hindu temples
| image =
{{image array|perrow=2|width=160|height=120
| image1 = Undavalli Caves.jpg| caption1 = Cave temple
| image2 = Hindu temple in Ubud.jpg| caption2 = Forest temple
| image3 = Masrur rockcut temple.jpg| caption3 = Mountain temple
| image4 = Somnath-current.jpg| caption4 = Seashore temple
}}
}}
John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi state Hindu temples served as centers where ancient manuscripts were routinely used for learning and where the texts were copied when they wore out.<ref>John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi (2011), Wonder of the Age: Master Painters of India, 1100–1900, The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], {{ISBN|978-1588394309}}, page 19</ref> In South India, temples and associated ''mathas'' served custodial functions, and a large number of manuscripts on [[Hindu philosophy]], poetry, grammar and other subjects were written, multiplied and preserved inside the temples.<ref>Saraju Rath (2012), Aspects of Manuscript Culture in South India, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004219007}}, pages ix, 158-168, 252-259</ref> Archaeological and epigraphical evidence indicates existence of libraries called ''Sarasvati-bhandara'', dated possibly to early 12th-century and employing librarians, attached to Hindu temples.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 183-186</ref>
Palm-leaf manuscripts called [[Palm-leaf manuscript#Javanese and Balinese|lontar]] in dedicated stone libraries have been discovered by archaeologists at Hindu temples in [[Bali]] Indonesia and in 10th century Cambodian temples such as Angkor Wat and [[Banteay Srei]].<ref>Wayne A. Wiegand and Donald Davis (1994), Encyclopedia of Library History, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0824057879}}, page 350</ref>
=== Temple schools ===
Inscriptions from the 4th century CE suggest the existence of schools around Hindu temples, called ''Ghatikas'' or ''Mathas'', where the [[Vedas]] were studied.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 169-171</ref> In south India, 9th century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called ''Calai'' or ''Salai'', and these provided free boarding and lodging to students and scholars.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, page 175</ref><ref name="Dayalan1992p202">{{cite book|author=D. Dayalan|title=Early Temples of Tamilnadu: Their Role in Socio-Economic Life (c. 550-925 CE)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3XXAAAAMAAJ|year=1992|publisher=Harman |isbn=978-81-85151-55-7|pages=202–203}}, Quote: "There were some institutions [Hindu temples] which may be called temple-colleges and strove for the promotion of education in the country. They also acted as great residential institutions and offered facilities for the study and stay of hundreds of students and teachers from far and near. Some of these were triple institutions, a college, a hostel and a hospital knit together. Many of such institutions are found described in the Chola inscriptions. (...) But the earliest known Vedic institution of advanced studies that existed in the Tamil country was the vidyasthana at Bahur near Pondicherry. A copper plate grant issued during the reign of Nripatungavarman (877 CE) records the gift of certain villages as ''vidya-bhoga'' for its maintenance."</ref> The temples linked to [[Bhakti movement]] in the early 2nd millennium, were dominated by non-Brahmins.<ref name=scharfetempleschools /> These assumed many educational functions, including the exposition, recitation and public discourses of Sanskrit and Vedic texts.<ref name=scharfetempleschools>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 173-174</ref> Some temple schools offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting.<ref name=michelltempleschool /><ref name=scharfetempleschools2>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, page 176-182</ref> By the 8th century, Hindu temples also served as the social venue for tests, debates, team competition and Vedic recitals called ''Anyonyam''.<ref name=michelltempleschool /><ref name=scharfetempleschools2 />
=== Hospitals, community kitchen, monasteries ===
According to Kenneth G. Zysk – a professor specializing in Indology and ancient medicine, Hindu ''mathas'' and temples had by the 10th-century attached medical care along with their religious and educational roles.<ref name="Zysk1998p45" /> This is evidenced by various inscriptions found in Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and elsewhere. An inscription dated to about 930 CE states the provision of a physician to two ''matha'' to care for the sick and destitute. Another inscription dated to 1069 at a Vishnu temple in Tamil Nadu describes a hospital attached to the temple, listing the nurses, physicians, medicines and beds for patients. Similarly, a stone inscription in Andhra Pradesh dated to about 1262 mentions the provision of a ''prasutishala'' (maternity house), ''vaidya'' (physician), an ''arogyashala'' (health house) and a ''viprasattra'' (hospice, kitchen) with the religious center where people from all social backgrounds could be fed and cared for.<ref name="Zysk1998p45">{{cite book|author=Kenneth G. Zysk|title=Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BAFndFpP4oUC |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1528-5|pages=45–46}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Willis|title=The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual: Temples and the Establishment of the Gods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ShzJoQEACAAJ|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-46016-4|page=106}}</ref> According to Zysk, both Buddhist monasteries and Hindu religious centers provided facilities to care for the sick and needy in the 1st millennium, but with the destruction of Buddhist centers after the 12th century, the Hindu religious institutions assumed these social responsibilities.<ref name="Zysk1998p45" /> According to George Michell, Hindu temples in South India were active charity centers and they provided free meal for wayfarers, pilgrims and devotees, as well as boarding facilities for students and hospitals for the sick.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA59 |year=1977| publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn= 978-0-226-53230-1|pages=59–60}}</ref>
The 15th and 16th century Hindu temples at [[Hampi]] featured storage spaces (temple granary, ''kottara''), water tanks and kitchens.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kapila Vatsyayan|author-link=Kapila Vatsyayan|title=Concepts of Space, Ancient and Modern|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1a7XZdH1V0C&pg=PA198|year=1991|publisher=Abhinav|isbn=978-81-7017-252-9|pages=198–199}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last1= Fritz|first1= John M|last2 =Michell| first2 =George|title=Hampi Vijayanagara|publisher = Jaico|isbn= 978-81-8495-602-3| year=2016|pages=61–63}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Anila Verghese|title=Hampi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TDduAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-565433-2|pages=20, 33, 39}}</ref> Many major pilgrimage sites have featured ''dharmashalas'' since early times. These were attached to Hindu temples, particularly in South India, providing a bed and meal to pilgrims. They relied on any voluntary donation the visitor may leave and to land grants from local rulers.<ref name=sen126>{{cite book|author=Colleen Taylor Sen|title=Food Culture in India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YIyV_5wrplMC&pg=PA126| year=2004|publisher=Greenwood |isbn =978-0-313-32487-1|pages =126–127}}</ref> Some temples have operated their kitchens on a daily basis to serve the visitor and the needy, while others during major community gatherings or festivals. Examples include the major kitchens run by Hindu temples in [[Udupi]] (Karnataka), [[Puri]] (Odisha) and [[Tirupati]] (Andhra Pradesh). The tradition of sharing food in smaller temple is typically called ''prasada''.<ref name=sen126 /><ref>{{cite book|author=Albertina Nugteren|title=Belief, Bounty, And Beauty: Rituals Around Sacred Trees in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SkPQAkBGA9YC&pg=PA412|year=2005|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-14601-6|pages=412–413}}</ref>
== Styles ==
Hindu temples are found in diverse locations each incorporating different methods of construction and styles:
* Mountain<ref name=mwmmountain>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=March 2006 |title=Mountain Temples and Temple-Mountains: Masrur |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=26–49 |doi=10.2307/25068237 |jstor=25068237}}</ref> temples such as [[Masrur Temples|Masrur]]
* Cave<ref name=mwmcaveforest>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=1981 |title=Forest and Cave: Temples at Candrabhāgā and Kansuān |journal=Archives of Asian Art |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |volume=34 |pages=56–73 |jstor=20111117}}</ref> temples such as Chandrabhaga, Chalukya<ref>Gary Tarr, Chronology and Development of the Chāḷukya Cave Temples, Ars Orientalis, Vol. 8 (1970), pp. 155-184.</ref> and [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]]
* Stepwell temple compounds such as the [[Mata Bhavani's Stepwell|Mata Bhavani]], Ankol Mata and Huccimallugudi<ref>Jutta Neubauer (1981), The Stepwells of Gujarat: in art-historical perspective, {{ISBN|978-0391022843}}, see Introduction, Chapters 1 and 2.</ref>
* Forest<ref name=mwmcaveforest /> temples such as Kasaun and Kusama<ref>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=1975–1976 |title=A Field Report on Temples at Kusuma |journal=Archives of Asian Art |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |volume=29 |pages=23–46 |jstor=20062576}}</ref>
* River bank and sea shore temples such as [[Somnath temple|Somnath]]
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| align = right
| width = 200
| footer = Hindu deities, stepwell style.
| image1 =Rani ki vav 07.jpg
| image2 = Rani ki Vav sculptures 02.jpg
}}
;Step well temples
In arid western parts of India, such as Rajasthan and Gujarat, Hindu communities built large walk-in wells that served as the only source of water in dry months but also served as social meeting places and carried religious significance. These monuments went down into the earth towards subterranean water, up to seven storeys, and were part of a temple complex.<ref name=jneubauer>Jutta Neubauer, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23005658 "The stepwells of Gujarat"], ''India International Centre Quarterly'', Vol. 26, No. 2 (Summer 1999), pp. 75-80.</ref> These vav (literally, stepwells) had intricate art reliefs on the walls, with numerous ''murtis'' and images of Hindu deities, water spirits and erotic symbolism. The step wells were named after Hindu deities; for example, [[Mata Bhavani's Stepwell]], Ankol Mata Vav, Sikotari Vav and others.<ref name=jneubauer /> The temple ranged from being small single pada (cell) structure to large nearby complexes. These stepwells and their temple compounds have been variously dated from late 1st millennium BCE through 11th century CE. Of these, [[Rani ki vav]], with hundreds of art reliefs including many of [[Vishnu]] deity avatars, has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage site.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/922 Rani-ki-vav at Patan, Gujarat], UNESCO World Heritage Site.</ref>
; Cave temples
The [[Indian rock-cut architecture]] evolved in Maharashtran temple style in the 1st millennium CE. The temples are carved from a single piece of rock as a complete temple or carved in a cave to look like the interior of a temple. [[Ellora]] Temple is an example of the former, while The [[Elephanta Caves]] are representative of the latter style.<ref name=":0" />{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} The [[Elephanta Caves]] consist of two groups of caves—the first is a large group of five Hindu caves and the second is a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The Hindu caves contain rock-cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/would-you-like-to-know-these-amazing-facts-about-elephanta-caves-1455523138-1|title=Would you like to Know These Amazing facts about Elephanta Caves|date=2016-02-15|website=Jagranjosh.com|access-date=2019-12-28}}</ref>
== Arts inside Hindu temples ==
[[File:KAHLB 09 Dancing Ganesha Hoysaleswara.jpg|thumb|Dancing [[Ganesha]] sculpture at [[Hoysaleswara Temple]], intricate designs of [[Hoysala architecture]] are seen.]]
A typical, ancient Hindu temple has a profusion of arts – from paintings to sculpture, from symbolic icons to engravings, from thoughtful layout of space to fusion of mathematical principles with Hindu sense of time and cardinality.
Ancient Sanskrit texts classify ''murtis'' and images in a number of ways. For example, one method of classification is the dimensionality of completion:<ref name=grao1914 />
* '''Chitra''': images that are three-dimensional and completely formed
* '''Chitrardha''': images that are engraved in half relief
* '''Chitrabhasa''': images that are two-dimensional, such as paintings on walls and cloth
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| width1 = 120
| width2 = 103
| footer = Images and ''murtis'' inside Hindu temples vary widely in their expression. ''Raudra'' or ''ugra'' images express destruction, fear and violence, such as the Kali image at left. ''Shanta'' or ''saumya'' images express joy, knowledge and harmony, such as the Saraswati image at right. ''Saumya'' images are most common in Hindu temples.
| image2 = Saraswati.jpg
| image1 = Kali by Raja Ravi Varma.jpg
}}
Another way of classification is by the expressive state of the image:
* '''Raudra''' or '''Dugra''': are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have wide, circular eyes, carry weapons, have skulls and bones as adornment. These ''murtis'' were worshiped by soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress or terrors. Raudra deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably outside and in remote areas of a kingdom.<ref name=grao1914>Gopinath Rao (1914), [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924071128825#page/n61/mode/2up Elements of Hindu Iconography] Madras, Cornell University Archives, pp. 17-39.</ref>
* '''Shanta''' and '''saumya''': are images that were pacific, peaceful and expressive of love, compassion, kindness and other virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry symbolic icons of peace, knowledge, music, wealth, flowers, sensuality among other things. In ancient India, these temples were predominant inside villages and towns.<ref name=grao1914 />
A Hindu temple may or may not include a ''murti'' or images, but larger temples usually do. Personal Hindu temples at home or a hermitage may have a pada for yoga or meditation, but be devoid of anthropomorphic representations of god. Nature or others arts may surround him or her. To a Hindu yogin, states Gopinath Rao,<ref name=grao1914 /> one who has realised the Self and the Universal Principle within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image for worship. However, for those who have yet to reach this height of realization, various symbolic manifestations through images, ''murtis'' and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. Some ancient Hindu scriptures like the Jabaladarshana Upanishad appear to endorse this idea<ref name=grao1914 />
{{Blockquote|
1=<poem>
शिवमात्मनि पश्यन्ति प्रतिमासु न योगिनः ।
अज्ञानं भावनार्थाय प्रतिमाः परिकल्पिताः ॥५९॥
- जाबालदर्शनोपनिषत्
</poem>
<poem>
A yogin perceives god (Siva) within himself; images are for those who have not reached this knowledge.
</poem>
|2=''Jabaladarsana Upanishad'', verse 59<ref>[http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_sa/jabaladarshana_sa.html Jabaladarsana Upanishad] 1.59</ref>
}}
However, devotees aspiring to a personal relationship with the Supreme Lord, whom they worship variously as Krishna or Shiva, for example, tend to reverse such hierarchical views of self-realization, holding that the personal form of the deity, as the source of the Brahma-jyoti, or the light into which impersonalists, according to their ideals, propose to merge themselves and their individual identities, will benevolently accept worship through an ''arca vigraha,'' an authorized form constructed not according to imagination but in pursuit of scriptural directives.
== Historical development and destruction ==
{{main|Hindu temple architecture}}
A number of ancient Indian texts suggest the prevalence of ''murtis'', temples and shrines in Indian subcontinent for thousands of years. For example, the temples of the Koshala kingdom are mentioned in the [[Valmiki Ramayana]]<ref>Valmiki Ramayana, Ayodhya Khand, Canto 50, Verse 8</ref> (various recent scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE)<ref name="Brockington1998">{{cite book|author=J. L. Brockington|title=The Sanskrit Epics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C&pg=PA379|year=1998|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-10260-4|pages=379–}}</ref> The 5th century BCE text, ''[[Astadhyayi]]'', mentions male deity ''arcas'' or ''murtis'' of Agni, Indra, Varuna, Rudra, Mrda, Pusa, Surya, and Soma being worshipped, as well as the worship of arcas of female goddesses such as Indrani, Varunani, Usa, Bhavani, Prthivi and Vrsakapayi.<ref name=mm1988e>Michael Meister (1988), Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Oxford University Press, 0-691-04053-2, Chapter 1</ref> The 2nd century BCE "[[Mahabhasya]]" of [[Patanjali]] extensively describes temples of ''Dhanapati'' (deity of wealth and finance, Kubera), as well as temples of Rama and Kesava, wherein the worship included dance, music and extensive rituals. The ''Mahabhasya'' also describes the rituals for Krsna, Visnu and Siva. An image recovered from Mathura in north India has been dated to the 2nd century BCE.<ref name=mm1988e /> Kautilya's [[Arthashastra]] from 4th century BCE describes a city of temples, each enshrining various Vedic and Puranic deities. All three of these sources have common names, describe common rituals, symbolism and significance possibly suggesting that the idea of ''murtis'', temples and shrines passed from one generation to next, in ancient India, at least from the 4th century BCE.<ref name=mm1988e /> The oldest temples, suggest scholars, were built of [[brick]] and [[wood]]. [[Dimension stone|Stone]] became the preferred material of construction later.<ref>[[Subhash Kak]], Early Indian Architecture and Art, Migration & Diffusion, Vol.6/Nr.23, pages 6-27, 2005.</ref><ref name="The Hindu Temple 1946">[[Stella Kramrisch]], The Hindu Temple. University of Calcutta, Calcutta, 1946.</ref>
Early Jain and Buddhist literature, along with Kautilya's Arthashastra, describe structures, embellishments and designs of these temples – all with motifs and deities currently prevalent in Hinduism. Bas-reliefs and ''murtis'' have been found from 2nd to 3rd century, but none of the temple structures have survived. Scholars<ref name=mm1988e /> theorize that those ancient temples of India, later referred to as Hindu temples, were modeled after domestic structure – a house or a palace. Beyond shrines, nature was revered, in forms such as trees, rivers, and stupas, before the time of Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira. As Jainism and Buddhism branched off from the religious tradition later to be called Hinduism, the ideas, designs and plans of ancient Vedic and Upanishad era shrines were adopted and evolved, likely from the competitive development of temples and arts in Jainism and Buddhism. Ancient reliefs found so far, states Michael Meister,<ref name=mm1988e /> suggest five basic shrine designs and combinations thereof in 1st millennium BCE:
# A raised platform with or without a symbol
# A raised platform under an umbrella
# A raised platform under a tree
# A raised platform enclosed with a railing
# A raised platform inside a pillared pavilion
Many of these ancient shrines were roofless, some had ''[[torana]]s'' and roof.
From the 1st century BCE through 3rd century CE, the evidence and details about ancient temples increases. The ancient literature refers to these temples as ''Pasada'' (or Prasada), ''stana'', ''mahasthana'', ''devalaya'', ''devagrha'', ''devakula'', ''devakulika'', ''ayatana'' and ''harmya''.<ref name=mm1988e /> The entrance of the temple is referred to as ''dvarakosthaka'' in these ancient texts notes Meister,<ref name=mm1988e /> the temple hall is described as ''sabha'' or ''ayagasabha'', pillars were called ''kumbhaka'', while ''vedika'' referred to the structures at the boundary of a temple.
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Lad NKAD90.JPG|The 5th-century Ladkhan Shiva Temple, in the [[Aihole]] Hindu-Jain-Buddhist temple site, in [[Karnataka]].
File:5th century Hindu temples Eran Madhya Pradesh, plan sketched in 1880.jpg|Plan of 5th-century temples in [[Eran]], [[Madhya Pradesh]].
File:View of the Remains of the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh.jpg|The early 6th-century [[Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh|Dashavatara Temple]] in the [[Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh|Deogarh complex]] has a simple, one-cell plan.
File:1880 sketch of early 6th century Deogarh Dashavatara Hindu temple plan.jpg|1880 sketch of the 9-square floorplan of the same temple (not to scale or complete). For better drawings:<ref>Madho Sarup Vats (1952), [https://books.google.com/books?id=hzwTAAAAIAAJ The Gupta Temple at Deogarh], Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, Vol. LXX, pages 49-51 Plates 1-3</ref>
File:Plan of 6th century Badami Cave 3 Hindu temple, annotated.jpg|Layout of Cave 3 temple of the 6th-century [[Chalukya dynasty#Architecture|Chalukyan]]-style [[Badami cave temples]]
File:Elephanta Map.svg|Plan of the 6th-century main-cave temple at [[Elephanta Caves|Elephanta]].
File:6th century Cave 1 temple Elephanta island Mandala Mumbai harbor.svg|The Elephanta main cave is thought to follow this mandala design.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Carmel Berkson|author2=Wendy Doniger|author3=George Michell|title=Elephanta: The Cave of Shiva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_RYqq7um0hcC|year=1999|publisher=Princeton University Press (Motilal Banarsidass, Reprint)|isbn=978-81-208-1284-0|pages=17–21}}</ref>
File:Durga Temple Ceiling, Aihole, Karnataka.jpg|A 7th century [[Chalukya dynasty#Architecture|Chalukyan]]-style temple ceiling, also in Aihole.
Rani ki vav1.jpg|[[Rani ki Vav]] is an 11th-century [[stepwell]], built by the [[Chaulukya dynasty]], located in [[Patan, Gujarat|Patan]]. <!--The city was sacked by [[Sultanate of Delhi|Sultan of Delhi]], [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak]] between 1200 and 1210, and it was destroyed by the [[Gujarat Sultanate|Sultan of Gujarat]], [[Allauddin Khilji]], in 1298.<ref name=re2000/>{{relevance-inline}}--> The stepwell remains well-preserved, but is partly silted over.
</gallery>
{{Infobox
| title = Ancient Hindu temples outside the Indian subcontinent
| image =
{{image array|perrow=2|width=160|height=120
| image1 = Атешгях в наши дни.jpg | caption1 = [[Ateshgah of Baku|Ateshgah]] temple, used for Hindu, Sikh, and Zoroastrian worship, [[Azerbaijan]]
| image2 = Angkor Wat.jpg | caption2 = [[Angkor Wat]], [[Cambodia]]
| image3 = Prambanan Shiva Temple.jpg | caption3 = [[Prambanan]] temple, [[Indonesia]]
| image4 = Po Nagar 1.jpg | caption4 = [[Po Nagar]] temple, [[Vietnam]]
}}
}}
With the start of [[Gupta dynasty]] in the 4th century, Hindu temples flourished in innovation, design, scope, form, use of stone and new materials as well as symbolic synthesis of culture and [[Dharma|dharmic]] principles with artistic expression.<ref>Banerji, New Light on the Gupta Temples at Deogarh, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol V (1963), pp. 37-49.</ref><ref>Saraswati, Temple Architecture in the Gupta Age, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol VIII (1940), pp. 146-158.</ref> It is this period that is credited with the ideas of garbhagrha for ''Purusa'', mandapa for sheltering the devotees and rituals in progress, as well as symbolic motifs relating to dharma, karma, kama, artha and moksha. Temple superstructures were built from stone, brick and wide range of materials. Entrance ways, walls and pillars were intricately carved, while parts of temple were decorated with gold, silver and jewels. Visnu, Siva and other deities were placed in Hindu temples, while Buddhists and Jains built their own temples, often side by side with Hindus.<ref>Joanna Williams, The Art of Gupta India, Empire and Province, Princeton, 1982</ref>
The 4th through 6th century marked the flowering of ''Vidharbha'' style, whose accomplishments survive in central India as [[Ajanta caves]], [[Pavnar]], [[Mandhal]] and [[Mahesvar]]. In the [[Malaprabha river]] basin, South India, this period is credited with some of the earliest stone temples of the region: the [[Badami Chalukya architecture|Badami Chalukya]] temples are dated to the 5th century by some scholars,<ref>Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art (New York, 1965 reprint), pp. 78-80.</ref> and the 6th by some others.<ref>Gary Tartakov, "The Beginning of Dravidian Temple Architecture in Stone", ''Artibus Asiae'', Vol. 42, No. 1 (1980), pp. 39-99.</ref>
Over 6th and 7th centuries, temple designs were further refined during [[Maurya]] dynasty, evidence of which survives today at [[Ellora]] and in the [[Elephanta Caves|Elephanta cave temples]].
It is the 5th through 7th century CE when outer design and appearances of Hindu temples in north India and south India began to widely diverge.<ref>Michael Meister (Editor), Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Architecture – South India 200 BCE to 1324 CE, University of Pennsylvania Press (1983), {{ISBN|0-8122-7840-2}}</ref> Nevertheless, the forms, theme, symbolism and central ideas in the grid design remained same, before and after, pan-India as innovations were adopted to give distinctly different visual expressions.
The [[Western Chalukya architecture]] of the 11th- & 12th-century [[Tungabhadra]] region of modern central [[Karnataka]] includes many temples. [[Step-well]]s are consist of a shaft dug to the [[water table]], with steps descending to the water; while they were built for secular purposes, some are also decorated as temples, or serve as a [[temple tank]].
During the 5th to 11th century, Hindu temples flourished outside Indian subcontinent, such as in [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]]. In Cambodia, [[Khmer architecture]] favoured the [[Khmer architecture#Temple mountain|Temple mountain]] style famously used in Angkor Wat, with a [[Prang (architecture)|prang]] spire over the sanctum cell. Indonesian [[Candi of Indonesia|candi]] developed regional forms. In what is modern south and central Vietnam, [[Art of Champa#Temples of brick|Champa architecture]] built brick temples.
Destruction, conversion, and rebuilding
Many Hindu temples have been destroyed, some, after rebuilding, several times. Deliberate temple destruction usually had religious motives. Richard Eaton has listed 80 campaigns of Hindu temple site destruction stretching over centuries, particularly from the 12th through the 18th century.<ref>Richard Eaton (5 January 2001), [http://ftp.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_eaton_temples2.pdf "Temple desecration and Indo-Muslim states"], ''Frontline'', pp. 70-77 (Archived by Columbia University)</ref> Others temples have served as non-Hindu places of worship, either after conversion or simultaneously with Hindu use.
In the 12th-16th century, during [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]] and South Asia, Hindu temples, along with the temples of Buddhists and Jains, intermittently became targets of armies from Persian, Central Asian, and Indian sultanates. Imagined by these foreign zealots to be mere idols, sacred [[Iconoclasm|Forms of various deities]] were broken, spires and pillars were torn down, and temples were looted of their treasury. Some temples were [[Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques|converted into mosques]], or parts used to build mosques.<ref>See:
* Elizabeth Merklinger, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20752479 The Mosques of Raichur: A preliminary classification], Kunst des Orients, Vol. 12, H. 1/2 (1978/1979), pp. 79-94.
* Mark Jarzombek et al. (2010), ''A Global History of Architecture'', Wiley, {{ISBN|978-0470402573}}, Chapters and Sections: "1200 CE – Delhi through Qutb Minar"
* Ali Javid, ''World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India'', Volume 1, {{ISBN|978-0875864839}}, pp. 263. Quote - "The stones to construct the mosque were obtained by demolishing twenty seven Hindu and Jain temples."</ref> There exist both [[Freedom of religion in India#Tradition of religious freedom|Indian]] and [[Dhimmi|Muslim traditions]] of religious toleration. Muslim rulers led campaigns of temple destruction and forbade repairs to damaged temples, following the Muslim traditions. The [[Delhi Sultanate]] destroyed a large number of temples; [[Sikandar Shah Miri|Sikandar the Iconoclast]], [[History of Kashmir#Prelude and Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1580s)|Sultan of Kashmir]], was also known for his intolerance.<ref>See:
* Peter Jackson (2003), The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521543293}}, pp. 168
* A.L. Srivastava (1966), [https://archive.org/stream/sultanateofdelhi001929mbp#page/n345/mode/2up/ Delhi Sultanate], 5th Edition, Agra College
* Vincent Smith (1920), ''The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911'', Oxford University Press, pp. 268-269, 306-307, 437-438</ref>
The 16th- and 19th-century [[Goa Inquisition]] destroyed hundreds of Hindu temples. All Hindu temples in Portuguese colonies in India were destroyed, according to a 1569 letter in the Portuguese royal archives.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Portuguese in Goa, in Acompanhando a Lusofonia em Goa: Preocupações e experiências pessoais |year = 2016 | author= Teotonio R. De Souza| url=http://recil.grupolusofona.pt/jspui/bitstream/10437/509/1/PortuGoa.pdf | pages=28–30 |publisher= Lisbon: Grupo Lusofona}}</ref> {{Citation needed span|text=Temples were not converted into churches.|date=December 2020}} Religious conflict and desecrations of places of worship continued during the [[British Raj|British colonial era]].<ref>Marc Gaborieau (1985), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3033123 From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: idiom, ritual and ideology of the Hindu-Muslim confrontation in South Asia], Anthropology Today, 1(3), pp. 7-14.</ref>
Historian Sita Ram Goel's book "What happened to Hindu Temples" lists over 2000 sites where temples have been destroyed and mosques have been built over them. Some historians suggest that around 30,000 temples were destroyed by Islamic rulers between 1200 and 1800 CE.
Destruction of Hindu temple sites was comparatively less in the southern parts of India, such as in [[Tamil Nadu]]. Cave-style Hindu temples that were carved inside a rock, hidden and rediscovered centuries later, such as the [[Kailasa Temple, Ellora|Kailasa Temple]], have also preferentially survived. Many are now UNESCO world heritage sites.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/243 Ellora Caves] Cave 16 – Kailasha Hindu Temple, 8th century CE, UNESCO</ref>{{better source needed|reason=general statement|date=August 2019}}
In India, the Place of Worship (Special Provisions) Act was enacted in 1991 which prohibited the conversion of any religious site from the religion to which it was dedicated on 15 August 1947.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/what-does-the-places-of-worship-act-protect/article29993190.ece|title=What does the Places of Worship Act protect?|last=Venkataramanan|first=K.|date=2019-11-17|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-12-28|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Place of Worship(Special Provisions) Act, 1991 |url=https://mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/PlaceWorshipAct1991_0.pdf |publisher=Government of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Rautray |first1=Samanwaya |title=1991 central law precludes Ayodhya judgment setting precedent |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/1991-central-law-precludes-ayodhya-judgment-setting-precedent/cid/473370 |website=www.telegraphindia.com |language=en |date=10 Oct 2002}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" caption="" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="210">
Somnath temple ruins (1869).jpg|The [[Somnath temple]] in Gujarat was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. Here it is shown in 1869, after having been ruined by order of [[Aurangzeb]] in 1665. These ruins were demolished and the temple rebuilt in the 1950s.
Benares- The Golden Temple, India, ca. 1915 (IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66).jpg|The [[Kashi Vishwanath Temple]] was destroyed by the army of [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]] in 1194 CE. Since then, it has been demolished twice (in the 1400s, and 1669 CE) and rebuilt four times (in the 1200s, twice in the 1500s under [[Akbar]], and in the 1800s). Shown is the current 1800s temple, with the white domes and minaret of the co-located 1600s [[Gyanvapi Mosque]] in the background. The tonne of gold for the temple roof was donated by [[Ranjit Singh]] in 1835.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.217371|title=The Sacred City of the Hindus: An Account of Benares in Ancient and Modern Times|author=[[Matthew Atmore Sherring]]|publisher=Trübner & co.|year=1868|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.217371/page/n93 51] }}</ref><ref name="Madhuri_2007">{{cite book|author=Madhuri Desai|title=Resurrecting Banaras: Urban Space, Architecture and Religious Boundaries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdD3MYnYey8C&pg=PA30|year=2007|isbn=978-0-549-52839-5 }}</ref>
File:Plan Of The Ancient Temple Of Vishveshvur by James Prinsep 1832.jpg|An 1832 reconstruction of the 1500s temple Akbar funded. [[James Prinsep]] based the reconstruction on the foundations of the Gyanvapi Mosque. Many Hindu temples were rebuilt as [[mosques]] between 12th and 18th century CE.
Sun temple martand indogreek.jpg|Ruins of the [[Martand Sun Temple]] after being destroyed on the orders of the Sultan of Kashmir, [[Sikandar Butshikan|Sikandar the Iconoclast]], in the early 15th century, with demolition lasting a year.
Temple de Mînâkshî01.jpg|In the 14th century, the armies of [[Delhi Sultanate]], led by [[Malik Kafur]], plundered the [[Meenakshi Temple]] and looted it of its valuables; it was rebuilt and expanded in the 16th century.
Warangal_fort.jpg|[[Kakatiya Kala Thoranam]] (the Warangal Gate) built in the 12th century by the [[Kakatiya dynasty]]; the [[Warangal Fort]] temple complex [[Siege of Warangal (1323)|was destroyed]] in the 1300s by the Delhi Sultanate.<ref name=re2000>Richard Eaton (2000), [https://web.archive.org/web/20150406011408/http://jis.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/3/283.extract Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States], Journal of Islamic Studies, 11(3), pp 283-319</ref>
Elevation of Kirtistambh Rudramahalaya Sidhpur Gujarat India.jpg|Artistic rendition of the Kirtistambh, a surviving portion of the 10-11th century [[Rudra Mahalaya Temple]]. The temple was partly destroyed by the [[Delhi Sultanate|Sultan of Delhi]], [[Alauddin Khalji]], in 1296 CE, with part converted into a mosque and further parts destroyed by [[Ahmed Shah I]] in the fifteenth century.
Exteriors Carvings of Shantaleshwara Shrine 02.jpg|Exterior wall reliefs at [[Hoysaleswara Temple]]. The temple was twice sacked and plundered by the Delhi Sultanate in the early 14th century, and abandoned in the mid 14th century.<ref name="Bradnock2000p959">{{cite book|author1=Robert Bradnock|author2=Roma Bradnock|title=India Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hCFDsTbmhoC|year=2000|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0-658-01151-1|page=959}}</ref>
File:Mahadev Temple at Tambdi Surla.jpg|The 12th-century [[Mahadev Temple, Tambdi Surla|Mahadev Temple]] is the only [[Kadambas of Goa|Kadamba]]-period temple building to survive the [[Goa Inquisition]].
</gallery>
== Customs and etiquette ==
[[File:PURI JAGANATHA TEMPLE, PURI, ORISSA, INDIA, ASIA.jpg|thumb|[[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath Temple]] at [[Puri]], one of the [[Char Dham]]: the four main spiritual centers of Hinduism.]]
In Hinduism, temples are considered sacred spaces where the divine is believed to manifest, and devotees visit these places to experience the presence and blessings of the deity. The customs and etiquette for visiting temples varies across India. Devotees in major temples may bring in symbolic offerings for the [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]]. This includes fruits, flowers, sweets and other symbols of the bounty of the natural world. Temples in India are usually surrounded with small shops selling these offerings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flueckiger |first=Joyce Burkhalter |title=Everyday Hinduism |date=2015 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-6021-6 |location=Chichester, West Sussex |pages=87–99}}</ref>
When inside the temple, devotees keep both hands folded ([[namaste]] [[mudra]]). The inner sanctuary, where the [[murtis]] reside, is known as the ''[[garbhagriha]]''. It symbolizes the birthplace of the universe, the meeting place of the gods and humankind, and the threshold between the transcendental and the phenomenal worlds.<ref>Werner, Karel (1994). ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism''. Curzon Press. {{ISBN|0-7007-1049-3}}.</ref> It is in this inner shrine that devotees seek ''[[Darshan (Indian religions)|darśana]]'' (seeing and being seen by the auspicious sight of the divine)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eck |first=Diana L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEzh2QSNdlEC&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India |date=2007 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishe |isbn=978-81-208-3266-4 |pages=3 |language=en}}</ref> and offer prayers. Devotees may or may not be able to personally present their offerings at the feet of the deity. In most large Indian temples, only the [[pujari]]s (priest) are allowed to enter the main sanctum.<ref name="Narayanan">Narayanan, Vasudha. "The Hindu Tradition". In ''A Concise Introduction to World Religions'', ed. Willard G. Oxtoby and Alan F. Segal. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.</ref>
Temple management staff typically announce the hours of operation, including timings for special [[Puja (Hinduism)|pujas]]. These timings and nature of special puja vary from temple to temple. Additionally, there may be specially allotted times for devotees to perform [[pradakshina]] (circumambulations) around the temple.<ref name="Narayanan" />
Visitors and worshipers to large Hindu temples may be required to deposit their shoes and other footwear before entering. Where this is expected, the temples provide an area and help staff to store footwear. Dress codes vary. It is customary in temples in [[Kerala]], for men to remove shirts and to cover pants and shorts with a traditional cloth known as a ''[[Mundu]]''.<ref>Bain, Keith, Pippa Bryun, and David Allardice. ''Frommer's India''. 1st. New Jersey: Wiley Publishing, 2010, p. 75.</ref> In Java and Bali (Indonesia), before one enters the most sacred parts of a Hindu temple, shirts are required as well as a [[sarong]] around one's waist.<ref>''Indonesia Handbook'', 3rd edition, {{ISBN|978-1900949514}}, pp. 38.</ref> At many other locations, this formality is unnecessary.
== Regional variations in Hindu temples ==
=== Nagara Architecture of North Indian temples ===
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| caption1 = [[Kedarnath Temple]], [[Uttarakhand]]
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| caption2 = [[Sivasagar Sivadol]], [[Assam]]
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North Indian temples are referred to as Nagara style of temple architecture.<ref name=adamhardy>Adam Hardy (2007), The Temple Architecture of India, John Wiley & Sons, {{ISBN|978-0470028278}}</ref> They have ''sanctum sanctorum'' where the deity is present, open on one side from where the devotee obtains ''[[darśana]]''. There may or may not be many more surrounding corridors, halls, etc. However, there will be space for devotees to go around the temple in clockwise fashion [[circumambulation]]. In North Indian temples, the tallest towers are built over the ''sanctum sanctorum'' in which the deity is installed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Raymond |year=2001 |title=Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65422-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will |url-access=registration |pages= [https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will/page/123 123]–136 }}</ref>
The north India Nagara style of temple designs often deploy [[fractal]]-theme, where smaller parts of the temple are themselves images or geometric re-arrangement of the large temple, a concept that later inspired French and Russian architecture such as the [[Matryoshka doll|matryoshka]] principle. One difference is the scope and cardinality, where Hindu temple structures deploy this principle in every dimension with garbhgriya as the primary locus, and each pada as well as zones serving as additional centers of [[Focus (geometry)|loci]]. This makes a Nagara Hindu temple architecture symbolically a perennial expression of movement and time, of centrifugal growth fused with the idea of unity in everything.<ref name=adamhardy />
=== Temples in West Bengal ===
[[File:Dakshineswar.jpg|thumb|220x220px|[[Dakshineswar Kali Temple]], [[Kolkata]]]]
In [[West Bengal]], the [[Bengal temple architecture#West Bengal terra cotta temple architecture|Bengali terra cotta temple architecture]] is found. Due to lack of suitable stone in the alluvial soil locally available, the temple makers had to resort to other materials instead of stone. This gave rise to using [[terracotta]] as a medium for temple construction. Terracotta exteriors with rich carvings are a unique feature of Bengali temples. The town of [[Bishnupur, Bankura|Bishnupur]] in West Bengal is renowned for this type of architecture. There is also a popular style of building known as Naba-ratna (nine-towered) or Pancha-ratna (five-towered). An example of Navaratna style is the [[Dakshineswar Kali Temple]].<ref>Pika Ghosh (2005), Temple to Love: Architecture and Devotion in Seventeenth-century Bengal, {{ISBN|978-0253344878}}, Indiana University Press</ref>
=== Temples in Odisha ===
[[Odisha]] temple architecture is known as [[Kalinga architecture]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/lifestyle/model-art-ancient-temples-of-odisha-come-alive-in-crafted-stone-miniatures/1787483/|title=Model art: Ancient temples of Odisha come alive in crafted stone miniatures|date=2019-12-08|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-28}}</ref> classifies the spire into three parts, the ''Bāḍa'' (lower limb), the ''Ganḍi'' (body) and the ''Cuḷa/Mastaka'' (head). Each part is decorated in a different manner. Kalinga architecture is a style which flourished in Kalinga, the name for kingdom that included ancient Odisha. It includes three styles: ''Rekha Deula'', ''Pidha Deula'' and ''Khakhara Deula''.<ref>Dibishada Brajasundar Garnayak, [http://www.orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/orissareview/nov-2007/engpdf/Pages55-59.pdf Evolution of Temple Architecture in Orissa], Orissa Review, November 2007</ref> The former two are associated with [[Vishnu]], [[Surya]] and [[Shiva]] temples while the third is mainly associated with [[Chamunda]] and [[Durga]] temples. The ''Rekha Deula'' and ''Khakhara Deula'' houses the ''[[sanctum sanctorum]]'' while the ''Pidha Deula'' style includes space for outer dancing and offering halls.
[[File:Bird view of Jagannath Temple, Puri.jpg|centre|thumb|790x720px|Bird's Eye view of one of the four [[Char Dham]]s, [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|The Jagannath Temple]] at [[Puri]], [[Odisha]] built using the [[Kalinga architecture|Kalinga Architecture]].]]
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Jagannath Temple, Emami Paper Mill Complex, Balasore.jpg
| image2 = The sun temple at konark.jpg
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| footer = Jagannath Temple in the [[Balasore District]], the magnificent [[Konark Sun Temple]] near [[Puri]] and the [[Rajarani Temple]] in [[Bhubaneswar]]
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=== Temples of Goa and Konkani ===
[[File:Saptakoteshwar Temple.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Saptakoteshwar Temple, Goa.]]
The temple architecture of Goa is quite unique. As Portuguese colonial hegemony increased, Goan Hindu temples became the rallying point to local resistance.<ref>Padmaja Vijay Kamat, [http://macrotheme.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/9MR25Kam.22264637.pdf "Temple Economy in Goa: A Case Study"], ''The Macrotheme Review'' 2(5), Fall 2013, pp. 97-111.</ref> Many these temples are not more than 500 years old, and are a unique blend of original Goan temple architecture, Dravidian, Nagar and [[Hemadpanthi]] temple styles with some [[British architecture|British]] and [[Portuguese architecture|Portuguese architectural]] influences. Goan temples were built using sedimentary rocks, wood, limestone and clay tiles, and copper sheets were used for the roofs. These temples were decorated with mural art called as ''[[Kaavi art|Kavi kala]]'' or ''ocher art''. The interiors have murals and wood carvings depicting scenes from the [[Hindu mythology]].
=== South Indian and Sri Lankan temples ===
{{multiple image|centre|
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| image1 = Le temple de Srirangam (Tiruchirapalli, Inde) (13903661293).jpg
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| caption1 = A row of gopurams (towers) in the [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam Ranganathaswmy temple]], a typical South Indian [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavate]] temple complex in [[Srirangam]], [[Tamil Nadu]].
| image2 = Spiritual 16.jpg
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| caption2 = [[Koneswaram Temple]], a Tamil [[Saivaite|Saivate temple]] in [[Trincomalee|Tirukonamalai]], [[Sri Lanka]].
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South Indian temples have a large [[gopuram]], a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of the temple. This forms a prominent feature of [[Koil]]s, [[Hindu temple architecture|Hindu temples]] of the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian style]].<ref name=ching2>{{cite book| first=Francis D.K.| last= Ching| year= 2007| title= A Global History of Architecture
| url=https://archive.org/details/globalhistoryofa0000chin| url-access=registration| publisher=John Wiley and Sons| location=New York| isbn= 978-0-471-26892-5| page= [https://archive.org/details/globalhistoryofa0000chin/page/762 762]|display-authors=etal}}</ref> They are topped by the ''kalasam'', a bulbous stone [[finial]]. They function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.<ref name=ching>{{cite book| first=Francis D.K.
| last= Ching| year= 1995| title= A Visual Dictionary of Architecture
| publisher=John Wiley and Sons| location=New York| isbn= 0-471-28451-3| page= 253}}</ref> The gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the [[Tamil people|Tamil]] kings [[Pallavas]]; and by the twelfth century, under the [[Pandya]] rulers, these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the gopuram's colossal size.<ref name=mitchell>{{cite book| last =Michell| first =George| title = The Hindu Temple| publisher =University of Chicago Press
| year =1988| location =Chicago| pages = 151–153
| isbn = 0-226-53230-5}}</ref> It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one gopuram.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037402/gopura
|title=gopura|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2008-01-20}}</ref> They also appear in architecture outside India, especially [[Khmer architecture]], as at [[Angkor Wat]]. A koil may have multiple gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in tiers around the main shrine. The temple's walls are typically square with the outer most wall having gopuras. The [[sanctum sanctorum]] and its towering roof (the central deity's shrine) are also called the ''[[Vimana (shrine)|vimanam]]''.<ref>[[Ram Raz]], Henry Harkness (1834), {{Google books|cdEDAAAAYAAJ|Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus}}</ref> The inner sanctum has restricted access with only priests allowed beyond a certain point.
==== Temples in Kerala ====
Temples in Kerala have a different architectural style (keeping the same essence of Vastu), especially due to climatic differences Kerala have with other parts of India with larger rainfall. The temple roof is mostly tiled and is sloped and the walls are often square, the innermost shrine being entirely enclosed in another four walls to which only the pujari (priest) enters. The walls are decorated with either mural paintings or rock sculptures which many times are emphasised on Dwarapalakas.
[[File:TVM Padmanabhaswamy Temple.jpg|thumb|790px|centre|[[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]].]]
==== Temples in Tamil Nadu ====
The [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple]] is the '''worlds largest functioning Hindu temple'''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5894/ | title=Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam }}</ref> The temple is present in [[Tamil Nadu]], the temple was first built by the Chola ruler, '''Dharmavarma'''. The Kaveri river flood destroyed the temple and ''vimanam'' submerged in the island, and later, the [[early Cholas]] King [[Killivalavan]] rebuilt the temple complex as is present today. Beyond the ancient textual history, archaeological evidence such as inscriptions refer to this temple, and these stone inscriptions are from late 100 BCE to 100 CE.{{sfn|Sircar| 1979| p= 64}} Hence, making it one of the '''Oldest surviving active temple complexes in South India'''. Later, the temple constructions reached its peak during rule of is construction reached its peak during rule of [[Pallavas]]. They built various temples around [[Kancheepuram]], and [[Narasimhavarman II]] built the [[Thirukadalmallai]] and [[Shore Temple]] in Mamallapuram, a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]. The [[Pandyas]] rule created temples such as the [[Koodal Azhagar temple]] and [[Meenakshi Amman Temple]] at Madurai and [[Srivilliputhur Andal Temple]] at Srivilliputhur.{{sfn|Sastri|1970|pp=18–182}} The [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] were prolific temple builders right from the times of the first medieval king [[Vijayalaya Chola]]. The Chola temples include [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam]], the [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadeeshwarar temple at Tanjore]], [[Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram|Brihadeeshwarar temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram]] and the [[Airavatesvara Temple|Airavatesvarar Temple of Darasuram]] which are among the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]]. The [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Nayaks of Madurai]] reconstructed some of the well-known temples in Tamil Nadu such as the [[Meenakshi Temple]].<ref name=susanlchap4 /> One of the southernmost famous temples in South India, the Ramanathaswamy Temple was built in the 17th century on the island of Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{Cite web |last=earnmyvacation.com |date=2023-05-30 |title=A Journey Through the Most Beautiful South Indian Temples |url=https://earnmyvacation.com/south-indian-temple/ |access-date=2023-06-01 |website=Earn My Vacation |language=en-US}}</ref>
[[File:Aerial view of Sri Rangam temple near Tiruchirapalli 1.jpg|thumb|750x750px|center|An aerial view of the [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam]] in [[Srirangam]], often known as ''Bhuloka Vaikuntham'' and First among the 108 [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavate]] [[Divya Desam]]s]]
=== Temples in Nepal ===
The [[Pashupatinath Temple|Pashupatinath temple]] in [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]] is an important temple in Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://prasantbhatt.com/nepal-travel-trekking/9-amazing-nepali-temple-you-must-visit-before-you-die/|title=Major Hindu Temples In Nepal {{!}} Himalaya Parvat {{!}} Pashupatinath Temple|last=Bhatt|first=Shiva|date=2018-04-13|work=Hindu Temples In Nepal|access-date=2018-05-17|language=en-US}}</ref> It is built in a pagoda style and is surrounded by hundreds of temples and buildings built by kings. The temples top is made from pure gold.
[[File:Pashupati dec 20 2009.jpg|thumb|800px|center|{{center|[[Pashupatinath Temple]] from the other bank of Bagmati river, [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]].}}]]
=== Khmer Temples ===
[[File:Bantay srei.jpg|thumb|Art relief at the Hindu temple [[Banteay Srei]] in Cambodia.]]
[[Angkor Wat]] was built as a Hindu temple by King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yasodharapura (Khmer, present-day [[Angkor]]), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. The Spire in Khmer Hindu temple is called Giri (mountain) and symbolizes the residence of gods just like Meru does in Bali Hindu mythology and Ku (Guha) does in Burmese Hindu mythology.<ref>Stella Kramrisch, ''The Hindu Temple'', Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}, pp. 170-172.</ref>
Angkor Wat is just one of numerous Hindu temples in [[Cambodia]], most of them in ruins. Hundreds of Hindu temples are scattered from Siem Reap to Sambor Prei Kuk in central Cambodian region.<ref>Kubo Sumiko, Geomorphology, Archaeo-stratigraphy, and 14C Ages of Sambor Prei Kuk Pre-Angkorean Site, Central Cambodia, BULLETIN of the Graduate School of Education of Waseda University (Japan), No.22, March 2012</ref>
=== Temples in Indonesia ===
{{Main|Candi of Indonesia| List of Hindu temples in Indonesia|Balinese temple}}
[[File:Overview of Pura Besakih 1557.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The [[Besakih]] temple complex, largest Hindu temple in [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]].]]
Ancient Hindu temples in [[Indonesia]] are called ''[[Candi of Indonesia|Candi]]'' (read: ''chandi''). Prior to the rise of [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]], between the 5th to 15th century Dharmic faiths (Hinduism and Buddhism) were the majority in Indonesian archipelago, especially in [[Java]] and [[Sumatra]]. As the result numerous Hindu temples, locally known as ''[[Candi of Indonesia|candi]]'', constructed and dominated the landscape of Java. According to local beliefs, Java valley had thousands of Hindu temples which co-existed with Buddhist temples, most of which were buried in [[Mount Merapi#Geological history|massive eruption of Mount Merapi]] in 1006 CE.<ref>Taylor, K., & Altenburg, K. (2006). Cultural Landscapes in Asia‐Pacific: Potential for Filling World Heritage Gaps 1. International journal of heritage studies, 12(3), pages 267-282</ref><ref>Degroot, V. M. Y. (2009). Candi, space and landscape: a study on the distribution, orientation and spatial organization of Central Javanese temple remains (Doctoral dissertation, Leiden Institute for Area Studies, SAS Indonesie, Faculty of Arts, Leiden University)</ref>
[[File:Pura Bratan Bali.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Pura Ulun Danu Bratan]], [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]].]]
Between 1,100 and 1,500 additional Hindu temples were built, but abandoned by Hindus and Buddhists as Islam spread in Java circa 15th to 16th century.
In last 200 years, some of these have been rediscovered mostly by farmers while preparing their lands for crops. Most of these ancient temples were rediscovered and reconstructed between 19th to 20th century, and treated as the important [[archaeology|archaeological findings]] and also as [[tourist attraction]],<ref name="Hindu Temple Tour">{{cite web|url=https://www.hindutempleyatra.in|title=Hindu Temple Tour|access-date=23 July 2019}}</ref> but not as the house of worship. Hindu temples of ancient [[Java]] bear resemblances with temples of [[South Indian]] style. The largest of these is the 9th century Javanese Hindu temple, [[Prambanan]] in [[Yogyakarta]], now a [[UNESCO]] world heritage site. It was designed as three concentric squares and has 224 temples. The inner square contains 16 temples dedicated to major Hindu deities, of which [[Shiva]] temple is the largest.<ref>[[Subhash Kak|Kak, S]]. (2011) Space and order in Prambanan. In M. Gupta (ed.) From Beyond the Eastern Horizon: Essays in honour of Professor [[Lokesh Chandra]]. Aditya Prakashan, Delhi. [http://www.hinduwisdom.info/prambanan_chapter.pdf]</ref> The temple has extensive wall reliefs and carvings illustrating the stories from the Hindu epic [[Ramayana]].<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/642 Prambanan Temple Compounds] UNESCO world heritage site</ref>
In [[Bali]], the [[Balinese Hinduism|Hindu]] temple is known as "[[Pura (Balinese temple)|Pura]]", which is designed as an open-air worship place in a walled compound. The compound walls have a series of intricately decorated gates without doors for the devotee to enter. The design, plan and layout of the holy pura follows a square layout.<ref>Brigitta Hauser-Schaublin (1993), Keraton and Temples in Bali, in Urban Symbolism (Editor: P. Nas), Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004098558}}</ref><ref>Hildred Geertz, The Life of a Balinese Temple, {{ISBN|978-0824825331}}, University of Hawaii Press</ref>
The majority of Hindu temples in Java were dedicated to Shiva, who Javanese Hindus considered as the God who commands the energy to destroy, recombine and recreate the cycle of life. Small temples were often dedicated to Shiva and his family (wife Durga, son Ganesha). Larger temple complexes include temples for Vishnu and Brahma, but the most majestic, sophisticated and central temple was dedicated to Shiva. The 732 CE Canggal inscription found in Southern Central Java, written in Indonesian Sanskrit script, eulogizes Shiva, calling him God par-excellence.
[[File:Yogyakarta Indonesia Prambanan-temple-complex-02.jpg|thumb|800px|center|{{center|The [[Prambanan]] temple complex in [[Yogyakarta]], the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia and the second largest Hindu temple in [[Southeast Asia]].}}]]
=== Temples in Vietnam ===
[[File:My Son.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Partially ruined [[Mỹ Sơn]] Hindu temple complex, Vietnam.]]
There are a number of Hindu temple clusters built by the [[Champa]] Kingdoms along the coast of [[Vietnam]], with some on UNESCO world heritage site list.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=949 My Son Sanctuary] Vietnam, UNESCO World Heritage Site</ref> Examples include [[Mỹ Sơn]] – a cluster of 70 temples with earliest dated to be from the 4th century CE and dedicated to Siva, while others are dedicated to Hindu deities Krishna, Vishnu and others. These temples, internally and with respect to each other, are also built on the Hindu perfect square grid concept. Other sites in Vietnam with Hindu temples include Phan Rang with the Cham temple [[Po Klong Garai]].<ref>Ngô Vǎn Doanh (2006), ''Champa: Ancient Towers''. Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, Chapter 16.</ref>
=== Temples in Thailand ===
[[File:Wat Khaek Silom Sri Mariamman Hindu temple Bangkok.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Sri Mariamman Temple, Bangkok]]]]
[[Thailand]] has many notable Hindu temples including: the [[Mariamman Temple, Bangkok|Sri Mariammam temple]] in Bangkok, the [[Devasathan]], the [[Erawan Shrine]], [[Prasat Muang Tam]], [[Sdok Kok Thom]] and [[Phanom Rung Historical Park|Phanom Rung]]. Most of the newer Hindu temples are of South Indian origin and were built by Tamil migrant communities. However, Thailand has many historic indigenous Hindu temples such as [[Phanom Rung Historical Park|Phanom Rung]]. Although most indigenous Hindu temples are ruins, a few such as [[Devasathan]] in Bangkok are actively used.
=== Temples outside Asia ===
Many members of the diaspora from the Indian subcontinent have established Hindu temples outside India as a means of preserving and celebrating cultural and spiritual heritage abroad. Describing the hundreds of temples that can be found throughout the United States, scholar Gail M. Harley observes, "The temples serve as central locations where Hindus can come together to worship during holy festivals and socialize with other Hindus. Temples in America reflect the colorful kaleidoscopic aspects contained in Hinduism while unifying people who are disbursed throughout the American landscape."<ref>Harley, Gail M. (2003). ''Hindu and Sikh Faiths in America''. Facts on File, Inc. {{ISBN|0-8160-4987-4}}.</ref> Numerous temples in North America and Europe have gained particular prominence and acclaim, many of which were built by the [[Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha]]. The Ganesh temple of [[Hindu Temple Society of North America]], in [[Flushing, Queens|Flushing]], [[Queens]], [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan region|New York City]], is the oldest Hindu temple in the [[Western Hemisphere]], and its [[cafeteria|canteen]] feeds 4,000 people a week, with as many as 10,000 during the [[Diwali]] (Deepavali) festival.<ref name=FlushingHinduTempleCanteen>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/30/nyregion/in-line-for-blessings-and-sweets-at-hindu-temple-canteen.html?_r=1|title=In Line for Blessings and Sweets at Hindu Temple Canteen|author=Shivani Vora|newspaper=The New York Times|date=28 October 2016|access-date=29 October 2016}}</ref>
====New York/New Jersey====
<gallery mode="packed" widths="160px" heights="160px">
File:Exterior Hindu Temple.JPG|The Ganesh temple of [[Hindu Temple Society of North America]] is the oldest Hindu temple in the [[Western hemisphere]], in [[Flushing, Queens|Flushing]], [[Queens]], [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan area|New York City]].
File:BAPS Robbinsville Mandir - mandir interior.jpg|[[Akshardham (New Jersey)|Swaminarayan Akshardham]] in [[Robbinsville, New Jersey|Robbinsville]], [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan area|New Jersey]], U.S., is [[List of largest Hindu temples|the world’s second-largest Hindu temple]] and the largest and most-visited Hindu temple outside [[Asia]].<ref name="modern new jersey">{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/world/hindu-temple-largest-outside-india-modern-new-jersey-8954200/lite/|title=World's largest Hindu temple outside India in modern era to be inaugurated on October 8 in New Jersey|newspaper=The Indian Express|date=September 25, 2023|access-date=October 1, 2023}}</ref>
File:Bridge water Temple, New Jersey.jpeg|[[Sri Venkateswara Temple (New Jersey)|Sri Venkateswara Temple]] in [[Bridgewater, New Jersey|Bridgewater]], [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan area|New Jersey]], in a semi-rural setting, serves as the flagship for the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society of USA.
</gallery>
====Outside New York/New Jersey====
<gallery mode="packed" widths="160px" heights="160px">
File:Sri Siva Vishnu Temple.jpg|[[Sri Siva Vishnu Temple]] in [[Maryland]], U.S., welcomes both [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] and [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] worshippers.
File:Hindu Temple Victoria Seychelles Islands of Africa.jpg|Hindu temple in [[Victoria, Seychelles|Victoria]], [[Seychelles]]
File:Clairwood-Shree-Shiva-Temple.jpg|[[Hinduism in South Africa|Clairwood Shri Shiva Temple]] in [[Durban, South Africa|Durban]], [[South Africa]]
</gallery>
== Temple management ==
The [[Archaeological Survey of India]] has control of most ancient temples of archaeological importance in India. In India, day-to-day activities of a temple is managed by a temple board [[committee]] that administers its [[finance]]s, management, and events. Since independence, the autonomy of individual Hindu religious denominations to manage their own affairs with respect to temples of their own denomination has been severely eroded and the state governments have taken control of major Hindu temples in some countries; however, in others, such as the United States, private temple management autonomy has been preserved.
== Etymology and nomenclature ==
{{location map+|India|float=right|width=400|caption=Major Hindu temple sites for ''[[Tirtha (Hinduism)|Tirtha]]'' and general tourism in India. Orange markers are UNESCO world heritage sites.
|places=
{{Location map~|India|label='''Somnath'''|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=20.888028|long=70.401278}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=16.073889|long=78.968056}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=23.182778|long=75.768333}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=22.249722|long=77.651667}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=24.48|long=86.7}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=19.072076|long=73.535807}}
{{location map~|India|label='''Rameshwaram'''|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=9.283333|long=79.3}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=22.333333|long=69.083333}}
{{location map~|India|label='''Varanasi'''|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=25.310753|long=83.010614}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=bottom|lat=17.933333|long=75.55}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=30.733333|long=79.066667}}
{{location map~|India|label='''Badrinath'''|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=30.744|long=79.493}}
{{location map~|India|label='''Puri'''|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=19.8|long=85.81}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=20.1154|long=75.225}}
{{location map~|India|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right|lat=24.863|long=79.92}}
{{location map~|India |lat=24.718|long=84.999 |label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=bottom}}
{{location map~|India |lat=22.4833|long=73.5332|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=20.552377|long=75.700436|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=20.02639|long=75.17917|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=18.95833|long=72.93055|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=10.951483 |long=79.3562|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=11.1219 |long=79.2710|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=10.783055 |long=79.1325|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=12.61667|long=80.19167|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=15.3144|long=76.47167|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=top}}
{{location map~|India |lat=15.94833|long=75.816667|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=top}}
{{location map~|India |lat=19.8875|long=86.09472|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=23.85892|long=72.10162|label=|mark=Orange pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=21.8|long=88.1|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=27.5|long=77.67|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=29.956|long=78.17|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=23.18|long=75.78|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=34.215|long=75.501|label= '''Amarnath''' |mark=Blue pog.svg|position=right}}
{{location map~|India |lat=12.82|long=79.71|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=8.078|long=77.541|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{location map~|India |lat=26.5|long=74.55|label=|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left}}
{{Location map~|India|label='''Tirupati'''|mark=Green pog.svg|position=right|lat=13.40597|long=79.20499}}
{{location map~|India|label=" Ramappa Temple"|mark=Orange pog.svg |position=right| lat=18.259| long=79.943}}
}}
In [[Sanskrit]], the liturgical language of Hinduism, the word ''mandira'' means "house" ({{lang-sa|मन्दिर}}). Ancient Sanskrit texts use many words for temple, such as ''matha, vayuna, kirti, kesapaksha, devavasatha, vihara, suravasa, surakula, devatayatana, amaragara, devakula, devagrha, devabhavana, devakulika'', and ''niketana''.<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/tamil/recherche Sanskrit words for Temple] Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Koeln University, Germany</ref> Regionally, they are also known as ''prasada'', ''vimana'', ''kshetra'', ''gudi'', ''ambalam'', ''punyakshetram'', ''deval'', ''[[deula]]'', ''devasthanam'', ''[[Koil|kovil]]'', ''[[Candi of Indonesia|candi]]'', ''[[Balinese temple|pura]]'', and ''[[wat]]''.
The following are the other names by which a Hindu temple is referred to in India:
* ''Devasthana'' (ದೇವಸ್ಥಾನ) in [[Kannada]]
* ''Deul''/''Doul''/''Dewaaloy'' in [[Assamese language|Assamese]] and in [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
* ''[[Deul|Deval]]/Raul/Mandir'' (मंदिर) in [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
* ''Devro/Mindar'' in [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]]
* ''Devala''{{Script|Kthi|( 𑂠𑂵𑂫𑂪 )}}, ''Devalaya''{{Script|Kthi|( 𑂠𑂵𑂫𑂰𑂪𑂨 )}}, ''Math''{{Script|Kthi|(𑂧𑂘)}}, ''Devaghar''{{Script|Kthi|( 𑂠𑂵𑂫𑂐𑂩 )}} or ''Mandira''{{Script|Kthi|(𑂧𑂢𑂹𑂠𑂱𑂩)}} in [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]]. ''Thakurbari''{{Script|Kthi|(𑂘𑂍𑂳𑂩𑂥𑂰𑂚𑂲)}} and ''sivala''{{Script|Kthi|(𑂮𑂱𑂫𑂰𑂪𑂰)}} are specially use of Krishna temple and Shiva temple respectively.
* ''[[Deula]]'' (ଦେଉଳ) or ''Mandira''(ମନ୍ଦିର) in [[Odia language|Odia]] and ''Gudi'' in Kosali Odia
* ''Gudi'' (గుడి), ''Devalayam'' (దేవాలయం), ''Devasthanam'' (దేవస్థానము), ''Kovela'' (కోవెల), ''Kshetralayam'' (క్షేత్రాలయం), ''Punyakshetram'' (పుణ్యక్షేత్రం), or ''Punyakshetralayam'' (పుణ్యక్షేత్రాలయం), ''Mandiramu'' (మందిరము) in [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
* ''[[Kovil]]'' or kō-vill (கோவில்) and occasionally ''Aalayam'' (ஆலயம்) in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]; the Tamil word ''Kovil'' means "residence of God"<ref>The word ''ko'' in Tamil language also means ''king'', and ''kovil'' can also mean ''king's house''.</ref>
* ''Kshetram'' (ക്ഷേത്രം), ''Ambalam'' (അമ്പലം), ''Kovil'' (കോവിൽ), ''Devasthanam'' (ദേവസ്ഥാനം) or ''Devalayam'' (ദേവാലയം) in [[Malayalam]]
* ''Mandir'' (मंदिर) in [[Hindi]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (ਮੰਦਰ), [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] (મંદિર), and [[Urdu]] (مندر)<ref name="Shackle1990">{{cite book|last=Shackle|first=C.|title=Hindi and Urdu Since 1800: A Common Reader|date=1 January 1990|publisher=Heritage Publishers|isbn=9788170261629|quote=Specifically Hindu cultural contexts such as the ''pūjā'' 'worship' in the ''mandir'' 'temple' will clearly generate a predominance of Sanskrit vocabulary in Urdu as well as Hindi usage.}}</ref>
* ''Mondir'' (মন্দির) in [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
In Southeast Asia temples known as:
* ''[[Candi of Indonesia|Candi]]'' in [[Indonesia]], especially in [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], used both for Hindu or Buddhist temples.
* ''[[Balinese temple|Pura]]'' in Hindu majority island of [[Bali]], Indonesia.
* ''[[Wat]]'' in [[Cambodia]] and [[Thailand]], also applied to both Hindu and Buddhist temples.
; Temple sites
Some lands, including Varanasi, Puri, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Somnath, Mathura and Rameswara, are considered holy in Hinduism. They are called ''kṣétra'' (Sanskrit: क्षेत्र<ref>Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, [http://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/73.html क्षेत्र] "sacred spot, place of pilgrimage".</ref>). A kṣétra has many temples, including one or more major ones. These temples and its location attracts pilgrimage called tirtha (or tirthayatra).<ref>Knut A. Jacobsen (2012), Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: Salvific Space, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415590389}}</ref>
{{wide image|Konark Temple Panorama2.jpg|800px|Konark Sun Temple panoramic view}}
== See also ==
{{Portal|Religion|Hinduism}}
* [[Dambana]]
* [[List of Shiva temples in India|List of Shiva Temple In India]]
* [[List of Hindu temples]]
* [[List of Hindu temples in India]]
* [[List of Hindu temples outside India]]
* [[List of largest Hindu temples]]
* [[List of largest Hindu ashrams]]
* [[Hindu temple architecture]]
* [[Mandi (Mandaeism)|Mandi]]-Mandaean Temple
* [[Temple]]
* [[Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha|BAPS]]
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Bibliography ==
* Deva, Kṛṣṇa (1995). ''Temples of India''. New Delhi: Aryan Books International.
* Goel, S. R., and Arun Shourie (1992). ''Hindu temples: what happened to them''. New Delhi: Voice of India.
* Kramrisch, Stella ''Hindu Temple'', {{ISBN|978-8120802223}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Meister|first1=Michael W.|doi=10.1179/isr.1985.10.3.248|title=Measurement and Proportion in Hindu Temple Architecture|journal=Interdisciplinary Science Reviews|volume=10|issue=3|pages=248–258|year=1985|bibcode=1985ISRv...10..248M }}
* Meister, Michael W. ''Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture'', {{ISBN|978-0195615371}}
* Michell, George ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms'', {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}
* Ram Rāz, Henry Harkness (1834), {{Google books|cdEDAAAAYAAJ|Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus}}—on Hindu Temple Vimana, Pillars and Śilpa Śastras.
* Nagar, Shanti Lal (1990). ''The temples of Himachal Pradesh''. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
* {{cite book |title=Advanced History of India |first=K.A.Nilakanta |last=Sastri |year=1970 |pages=181–182 |publisher=Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd |location=New Delhi}}
* {{cite book |last=Sircar |first=D.C. |title=Some Epigraphical Records of the Medieval Period from Eastern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-O18xhA_BXUC&pg=PA64 |year=1979 |publisher=Shakti Malik |location=Delhi |isbn=9788170170969}}
== External links ==
* {{commons category-inline|Hindu temples}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
{{Worship in Hinduism}}
{{Place of worship}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hindu Temple}}
[[Category:Hindu temples| ]]
[[Category:Temples]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Place of worship in Hinduism</div>
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Lunatic" redirects here. For Jain temples, see <a href="/wiki/Jain_temple" title="Jain temple">Jain temple</a>. For the 1937 film, see <a href="/wiki/Mandir_(film)" title="Mandir (film)">Mandir (film)</a>.</div>
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.tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:327px;max-width:327px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:171px;max-width:171px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:112px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:20171126_Angkor_Wat_4712_DxO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/20171126_Angkor_Wat_4712_DxO.jpg/169px-20171126_Angkor_Wat_4712_DxO.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/20171126_Angkor_Wat_4712_DxO.jpg/254px-20171126_Angkor_Wat_4712_DxO.jpg 1.5x, 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/></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:164px;max-width:164px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:107px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shri_Jagannatha_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Shri_Jagannatha_Temple.jpg/162px-Shri_Jagannatha_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Shri_Jagannatha_Temple.jpg/243px-Shri_Jagannatha_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Shri_Jagannatha_Temple.jpg/324px-Shri_Jagannatha_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5568" data-file-height="3712" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:159px;max-width:159px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:107px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Salah_Satu_Upacara_Besar_Di_Pura_Agung_Besakih.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Salah_Satu_Upacara_Besar_Di_Pura_Agung_Besakih.jpg/157px-Salah_Satu_Upacara_Besar_Di_Pura_Agung_Besakih.jpg" decoding="async" width="157" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Salah_Satu_Upacara_Besar_Di_Pura_Agung_Besakih.jpg/236px-Salah_Satu_Upacara_Besar_Di_Pura_Agung_Besakih.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Salah_Satu_Upacara_Besar_Di_Pura_Agung_Besakih.jpg/314px-Salah_Satu_Upacara_Besar_Di_Pura_Agung_Besakih.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2809" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:129px;max-width:129px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:95px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ranganathaswamy_Temple,_Srirangam_(49998238702).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ranganathaswamy_Temple%2C_Srirangam_%2849998238702%29.jpg/127px-Ranganathaswamy_Temple%2C_Srirangam_%2849998238702%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ranganathaswamy_Temple%2C_Srirangam_%2849998238702%29.jpg/191px-Ranganathaswamy_Temple%2C_Srirangam_%2849998238702%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ranganathaswamy_Temple%2C_Srirangam_%2849998238702%29.jpg/254px-Ranganathaswamy_Temple%2C_Srirangam_%2849998238702%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:95px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Pashupatinath_Temple_27.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/The_Pashupatinath_Temple_27.jpg/192px-The_Pashupatinath_Temple_27.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/The_Pashupatinath_Temple_27.jpg/288px-The_Pashupatinath_Temple_27.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/The_Pashupatinath_Temple_27.jpg/384px-The_Pashupatinath_Temple_27.jpg 2x" data-file-width="13208" data-file-height="6544" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:105px;max-width:105px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:128px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pandarikulam_Amman_Kovil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Pandarikulam_Amman_Kovil.jpg/103px-Pandarikulam_Amman_Kovil.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Pandarikulam_Amman_Kovil.jpg/155px-Pandarikulam_Amman_Kovil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Pandarikulam_Amman_Kovil.jpg/206px-Pandarikulam_Amman_Kovil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1962" data-file-height="2452" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:218px;max-width:218px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:128px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ram_Janmbhoomi_Mandir,_Ayodhya_Dham.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Ram_Janmbhoomi_Mandir%2C_Ayodhya_Dham.jpg/216px-Ram_Janmbhoomi_Mandir%2C_Ayodhya_Dham.jpg" decoding="async" width="216" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Ram_Janmbhoomi_Mandir%2C_Ayodhya_Dham.jpg/324px-Ram_Janmbhoomi_Mandir%2C_Ayodhya_Dham.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Ram_Janmbhoomi_Mandir%2C_Ayodhya_Dham.jpg/432px-Ram_Janmbhoomi_Mandir%2C_Ayodhya_Dham.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="549" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Clockwise from top-left: <a href="/wiki/Angkor_Wat" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> (the world's largest religious structure); <a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Akshardham_(North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Swaminarayan Akshardham (North America)">Swaminarayan Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indians_in_the_New_York_City_metropolitan_area" title="Indians in the New York City metropolitan area">New Jersey</a> (the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_Hindu_temples" title="List of largest Hindu temples">largest Hindu temple</a> outside Asia); <a href="/wiki/Jagannath_Temple,_Puri" title="Jagannath Temple, Puri">Jagannath Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a>; <a href="/wiki/Besakih_Temple" title="Besakih Temple">Besakih Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ranganathaswamy_Temple,_Srirangam" title="Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam">Ranganathaswamy Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pashupatinath_Temple" title="Pashupatinath Temple">Pashupatinath Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pandarikulam_Amman_Kovil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pandarikulam Amman Kovil (page does not exist)">Pandarikulam Amman Kovil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ram_Mandir" title="Ram Mandir">Ram Mandir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ayodhya" title="Ayodhya">Ayodhya</a> (highest number of daily visitors)<sup id="cite_ref-CNBC50_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNBC50-1">[1]</a></sup></div></div></div></div>
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text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Hinduism" title="Category:Hinduism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em;background:#FFC569;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/1_Om.svg/90px-1_Om.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/1_Om.svg/135px-1_Om.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/1_Om.svg/180px-1_Om.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist" style="padding-bottom:0.35em; border:0;">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">History</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism#Roots_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Hindu synthesis</a> <small>(500/200 BCE-300 CE)</small><br /></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Religion" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian folk religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_religions_in_India" title="Tribal religions in India">Tribal religions in India</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Sampradaya" title="Sampradaya">Traditions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9">
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Major traditions</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><i><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">List</a></i></div></dt></dl></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_deities" title="Hindu deities">Deities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9">
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Trimurti" title="Trimurti">Trimurti</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Tridevi" title="Tridevi">Tridevi</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parvati" title="Parvati">Parvati</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Other major <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Devis</a></div></dt></dl>
<dl><dd><i><a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_deities" title="Rigvedic deities">Vedic</a>:</i></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ashvins" title="Ashvins">Ashvins</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chandra" title="Chandra">Chandra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prajapati" title="Prajapati">Prajapati</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pushan" title="Pushan">Pushan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudra" title="Rudra">Rudra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ushas" title="Ushas">Ushas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vayu" title="Vayu">Vayu</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><i>Post-Vedic:</i></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dattatreya" title="Dattatreya">Dattatreya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hanuman" title="Hanuman">Hanuman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kali" title="Kali">Kali</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Kartikeya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kubera" title="Kubera">Kubera</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radha" title="Radha">Radha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rama</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shakti" title="Shakti">Shakti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sita" title="Sita">Sita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishvakarma" title="Vishvakarma">Vishvakarma</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Concepts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9">
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Worldview</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_cosmology" title="Hindu cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puranic_chronology" title="Puranic chronology">Puranic chronology</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Ontology</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tattva" title="Tattva">Tattvas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tanmatras" title="Tanmatras">Subtle elements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panchikarana" title="Panchikarana">Panchikarana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pancha_Bhoota" class="mw-redirect" title="Pancha Bhoota">Gross elements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a" title="Guṇa">Guṇas</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Parabrahman" class="mw-redirect" title="Parabrahman">Supreme reality</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nirguna_Brahman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nirguna Brahman">Nirguna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saguna_Brahman" class="mw-redirect" title="Saguna Brahman">Saguna</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Om</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satcitananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Satcitananda">Satcitananda</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">God</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">God in Hinduism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/God_and_gender_in_Hinduism" title="God and gender in Hinduism">God and gender</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Puru%E1%B9%A3%C4%81rtha" title="Puruṣārtha">Meaning of life</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Ashrama_(stage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashrama (stage)">Stages of life</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacarya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Grihastha" class="mw-redirect" title="Grihastha">Grihastha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vanaprastha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanaprastha">Vanaprastha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">Sannyasa</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Three_Yogas" title="Three Yogas">Three paths to liberation</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti_yoga" title="Bhakti yoga">Bhakti yoga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jnana_yoga" title="Jnana yoga">Jnana yoga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karma_yoga" title="Karma yoga">Karma yoga</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Liberation</a></div></dt></dl>
<dl><dd><i>Mokṣa-related topics:</i></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paramatman" title="Paramatman">Paramātman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">Maya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Mind</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman (self)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81tman_(Hinduism)" title="Anātman (Hinduism)">Anātman (non-self)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Three_Bodies_Doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Bodies Doctrine">Sūkṣma śarīra (subtle body)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antahkarana" title="Antahkarana">Antaḥkaraṇa (mental organs)</a><br /></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prajna_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajna (Hinduism)">Prajña (wisdom)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda_(Hindu_philosophy)" title="Ānanda (Hindu philosophy)">Ānanda (happiness)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Viveka" title="Viveka">Viveka (discernment)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vairagya" title="Vairagya">Vairagya (dispassion)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Samatva" title="Samatva">Sama (equanimity)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Dama (temperance)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uparati" title="Uparati">Uparati (self-settledness)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Titiksha" title="Titiksha">Titiksha (forbearance)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Hinduism" title="Faith in Hinduism">Shraddha (faith)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dh%C4%81na" title="Samādhāna">Samadhana (concentration)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arishadvargas" title="Arishadvargas">Arishadvargas (six enemies)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ahamkara" title="Ahamkara">Ahamkara (attachment)</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Ethics</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion#Hindu_ethics" title="Ethics in religion">Niti śastra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Niyama" title="Niyama">Niyama</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Achourya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacarya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Damah</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Compassion#Hinduism" title="Compassion">Dayā</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arjava" title="Arjava">Arjava</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Santosha" title="Santosha">Santosha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sv%C4%81dhy%C4%81ya" title="Svādhyāya">Svādhyāya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shaucha" title="Shaucha">Shaucha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mitahara" title="Mitahara">Mitahara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81stra_pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87am_in_Hinduism" title="Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism">Sources of dharma</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Epistemology</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pratyaksha" title="Pratyaksha">Pratyakṣa (perception)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pramana#Anumāṇa" title="Pramana">Anumāṇa (inference)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Upam%C4%81%E1%B9%87a" title="Upamāṇa">Upamāṇa (comparison, analogy)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pramana#Arthāpatti" title="Pramana">Arthāpatti (postulation, presumption)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pramana#Anupalabdi" title="Pramana">Anupalabdi (non-perception, negation)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shabda" title="Shabda">Śabda (word, testimony)</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9">
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Worship_in_Hinduism" title="Worship in Hinduism">Worship</a>, sacrifice, and charity</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">Puja</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arti_(Hinduism)" title="Arti (Hinduism)">Ārtī</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_in_Hinduism" title="Prayer in Hinduism">Prarthana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Temple</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">Murti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japa" title="Japa">Japa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bhajan" title="Bhajan">Bhajana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kirtan" title="Kirtan">Kīrtana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">Homa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tarpana" title="Tarpana">Tarpana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vrata" title="Vrata">Vrata</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pr%C4%81ya%C5%9Bcitta" title="Prāyaścitta">Prāyaścitta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tirtha_(Hinduism)" title="Tirtha (Hinduism)">Tirtha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yatra" title="Yatra">Yatra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">Tirthadana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matha" title="Matha">Matha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_dance" title="Indian classical dance">Nritta-Nritya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Seva_(Indian_religions)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seva (Indian religions)">Seva</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Meditation</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Sanskrit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapas (Sanskrit)">Tāpas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Hinduism">Dhyāna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dh%C4%81na" title="Samādhāna">Samādhāna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nididhy%C4%81sana" title="Nididhyāsana">Nididhyāsana</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sadhu" title="Sadhu">Sadhu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yogi" title="Yogi">Yogi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yogini" title="Yogini">Yogini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asana" title="Asana">Asana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sadhana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadhana">Sadhana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hatha_yoga" title="Hatha yoga">Hatha yoga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jnana_yoga" title="Jnana yoga">Jnana yoga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti_yoga" title="Bhakti yoga">Bhakti yoga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karma_yoga" title="Karma yoga">Karma yoga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Raja_yoga" class="mw-redirect" title="Raja yoga">Raja yoga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kundalini_Yoga" class="mw-redirect" title="Kundalini Yoga">Kundalini Yoga</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_art" title="Hindu art">Arts</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharatanatyam" title="Bharatanatyam">Bharatanatyam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kathak" title="Kathak">Kathak</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kathakali" title="Kathakali">Kathakali</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kuchipudi" title="Kuchipudi">Kuchipudi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Manipuri_dance" title="Manipuri dance">Manipuri</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohiniyattam" title="Mohiniyattam">Mohiniyattam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Odissi" title="Odissi">Odissi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sattriya" title="Sattriya">Sattriya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Mela" title="Bhagavata Mela">Bhagavata Mela</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yakshagana" title="Yakshagana">Yakshagana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dandiya_Raas" title="Dandiya Raas">Dandiya Raas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carnatic_music" title="Carnatic music">Carnatic music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pandav_Lila" title="Pandav Lila">Pandav Lila</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kalaripayattu" title="Kalaripayattu">Kalaripayattu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Silambam" title="Silambam">Silambam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adimurai" title="Adimurai">Adimurai</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83sk%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Saṃskāra">Rites of passage</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbhadhana" title="Garbhadhana">Garbhadhana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana" title="Pumsavana">Pumsavana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Simantonayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Simantonayana">Simantonayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jatakarma" title="Jatakarma">Jatakarma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Namakarana" class="mw-redirect" title="Namakarana">Namakarana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nishkramana" title="Nishkramana">Nishkramana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Annaprashana" title="Annaprashana">Annaprashana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chudakarana" title="Chudakarana">Chudakarana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karnavedha" title="Karnavedha">Karnavedha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vidyarambha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vidyarambha">Vidyarambha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">Upanayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Keshanta" title="Keshanta">Keshanta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ritushuddhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ritushuddhi">Ritushuddhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Samavartana" class="mw-redirect" title="Samavartana">Samavartana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_wedding" title="Hindu wedding">Vivaha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antyeshti" class="mw-redirect" title="Antyeshti">Antyeshti</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_festivals" title="List of Hindu festivals">Festivals</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holi" title="Holi">Holi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shivaratri" class="mw-redirect" title="Shivaratri">Shivaratri</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Navaratri" title="Navaratri">Navaratri</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durga_Puja" title="Durga Puja">Durga Puja</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramlila" title="Ramlila">Ramlila</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vijayadashami" title="Vijayadashami">Vijayadashami-Dussehra</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Raksha_Bandhan" title="Raksha Bandhan">Raksha Bandhan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ganesh_Chaturthi" title="Ganesh Chaturthi">Ganesh Chaturthi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vasant_Panchami" title="Vasant Panchami">Vasant Panchami</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rama_Navami" title="Rama Navami">Rama Navami</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_Janmashtami" title="Krishna Janmashtami">Janmashtami</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Onam" title="Onam">Onam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Makar_Sankranti" title="Makar Sankranti">Makar Sankranti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kumbha_Mela" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumbha Mela">Kumbha Mela</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thai_Pongal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thai Pongal">Pongal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ugadi" title="Ugadi">Ugadi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vaisakhi" title="Vaisakhi">Vaisakhi</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bihu" title="Bihu">Bihu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Puthandu" title="Puthandu">Puthandu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishu" title="Vishu">Vishu</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ratha-Yatra_(Puri)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ratha-Yatra (Puri)">Ratha Yatra</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Philosophical schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9">
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Astika" class="mw-redirect" title="Astika">Six Astika schools</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mimamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa">Mimamsa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Achintya Bheda Abheda</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Dvaitadvaita</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Akshar-Purushottam_Darshan" class="mw-redirect" title="Akshar-Purushottam Darshan">Akshar-Purushottam Darshan</a></i></li></ul></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Other schools</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Saiva</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pasupata" class="mw-redirect" title="Pasupata">Pasupata</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijña</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishnavism" class="mw-redirect" title="Vishnavism">Vaishnava</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pancharatra" title="Pancharatra">Pancharatra</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_gurus_and_sants" title="List of Hindu gurus and sants">Gurus, sants, philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9">
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">Ancient</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agastya" title="Agastya">Agastya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Angiras" title="Angiras">Angiras</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Aruni">Aruni</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ashtavakra" title="Ashtavakra">Ashtavakra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atri" title="Atri">Atri</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bharadwaja" class="mw-redirect" title="Bharadwaja">Bharadwaja</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya_Sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyaya Sutras">Gotama</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jamadagni" title="Jamadagni">Jamadagni</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kashyapa" title="Kashyapa">Kashyapa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prashastapada" title="Prashastapada">Prashastapada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Raikva" title="Raikva">Raikva</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satyakama_Jabala" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyakama Jabala">Satyakama Jabala</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Valmiki" title="Valmiki">Valmiki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vashistha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vashistha">Vashistha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vishvamitra" title="Vishvamitra">Vishvamitra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yajnavalkya</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Akka_Mahadevi" title="Akka Mahadevi">Akka Mahadevi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Allama_Prabhu" title="Allama Prabhu">Allama Prabhu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alvars" title="Alvars">Alvars</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Basava" title="Basava">Basava</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chaitanya_Mahaprabhu" title="Chaitanya Mahaprabhu">Chaitanya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramdas_Kathiababa" title="Ramdas Kathiababa">Ramdas Kathiababa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chakradhar_Swami" title="Chakradhar Swami">Chakradhara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Changdev" class="mw-redirect" title="Changdev">Chāngadeva</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dadu_Dayal" title="Dadu Dayal">Dadu Dayal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eknath" title="Eknath">Eknath</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gangesha_Upadhyaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangesha Upadhyaya">Gangesha Upadhyaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Santadas_Kathiababa" title="Santadas Kathiababa">Santadas Kathiababa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gorakshanath" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorakshanath">Gorakshanatha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Haridasa_Thakur" title="Haridasa Thakur">Haridasa Thakur</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hith_Harivansh_Mahaprabhu" title="Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu">Harivansh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jagannatha_Dasa_(Odia_poet)" title="Jagannatha Dasa (Odia poet)">Jagannatha Dasa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jayanta_Bhatta" title="Jayanta Bhatta">Jayanta Bhatta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jayatirtha" title="Jayatirtha">Jayatīrtha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jiva_Goswami" title="Jiva Goswami">Jiva Goswami</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1%C4%81ne%C5%9Bvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jñāneśvar">Jñāneśvara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kabir" title="Kabir">Kabir</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kanaka_Dasa" title="Kanaka Dasa">Kanaka Dasa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rila_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Kumārila Bhaṭṭa">Kumārila Bhaṭṭa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Madhus%C5%ABdana_Sarasvat%C4%AB" title="Madhusūdana Sarasvatī">Madhusūdana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhva</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matsyendranath" class="mw-redirect" title="Matsyendranath">Matsyendranatha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Morya_Gosavi" title="Morya Gosavi">Morya Gosavi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mukundraj" title="Mukundraj">Mukundarāja</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Namdev" title="Namdev">Namadeva</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Narahari_Tirtha" title="Narahari Tirtha">Narahari Tirtha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Narasimha_Saraswati" title="Narasimha Saraswati">Nrusinha Saraswatī</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nayanars" title="Nayanars">Nayanars</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarkacharya" title="Nimbarkacharya">Nimbarkacharya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prabh%C4%81kara" title="Prabhākara">Prabhākara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Purandara_Dasa" title="Purandara Dasa">Purandara Dasa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Raghavendra_Swami" class="mw-redirect" title="Raghavendra Swami">Raghavendra Swami</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Raghunatha_Siromani" title="Raghunatha Siromani">Raghunatha Siromani</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Raghuttama_Tirtha" title="Raghuttama Tirtha">Raghuttama Tirtha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ram_Charan_(guru)" title="Ram Charan (guru)">Ram Charan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramananda" title="Ramananda">Ramananda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramprasad_Sen" title="Ramprasad Sen">Ramprasad Sen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ravidas" title="Ravidas">Ravidas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rupa_Goswami" title="Rupa Goswami">Rupa Goswami</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas" title="Samarth Ramdas">Samarth Ramdas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sankardev" title="Sankardev">Sankardev</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satyanatha_Tirtha" title="Satyanatha Tirtha">Satyanatha Tirtha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siddheshwar" title="Siddheshwar">Siddheshwar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sripada_Srivallabha" class="mw-redirect" title="Sripada Srivallabha">Sripada Srivallabha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sripadaraja" title="Sripadaraja">Sripadaraja</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Surdas" title="Surdas">Surdas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan" title="Swaminarayan">Swaminarayan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Syama_Sastri" title="Syama Sastri">Śyāma Śastri</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tukaram" title="Tukaram">Tukaram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tulsidas" title="Tulsidas">Tulsidas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tyagaraja" title="Tyagaraja">Tyagaraja</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81caspati_Mi%C5%9Bra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vācaspati Miśra">Vācaspati Miśra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vadiraja_Tirtha" title="Vadiraja Tirtha">Vadiraja Tirtha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vallabha_Acharya" class="mw-redirect" title="Vallabha Acharya">Vallabha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta_Desika" title="Vedanta Desika">Vedanta Desika</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vidyaranya" title="Vidyaranya">Vidyaranya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vyasaraja" class="mw-redirect" title="Vyasaraja">Vyasaraja</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Modern</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bhaktisiddhanta_Sarasvati" title="Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati">Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bhaktivinoda_Thakur" title="Bhaktivinoda Thakur">Bhaktivinoda Thakur</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chandrashekarendra_Saraswati" title="Chandrashekarendra Saraswati">Chandrashekarendra Saraswati</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinmayananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinmayananda">Chinmayananda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jaggi_Vasudev" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaggi Vasudev">Jaggi Vasudev</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Krishnananda_Saraswati" title="Krishnananda Saraswati">Krishnananda Saraswati</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mahavatar_Babaji" title="Mahavatar Babaji">Mahavatar Babaji</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maharishi_Mahesh_Yogi" title="Maharishi Mahesh Yogi">Mahesh Yogi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Narayana_Guru" title="Narayana Guru">Narayana Guru</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nigamananda_Paramahansa" title="Nigamananda Paramahansa">Nigamananda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nisargadatta_Maharaj" title="Nisargadatta Maharaj">Nisargadatta Maharaj</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/A._C._Bhaktivedanta_Swami_Prabhupada" title="A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada">Prabhupada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramachandra_Dattatrya_Ranade" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade">R. D. Ranade</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramakrishna" title="Ramakrishna">Ramakrishna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Rama_Tirtha" class="mw-redirect" title="Swami Rama Tirtha">Rama Tirtha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramana_Maharshi" title="Ramana Maharshi">Ramana Maharshi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Shankar_(spiritual_leader)" title="Ravi Shankar (spiritual leader)">Ravi Shankar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Ramdas" title="Swami Ramdas">Ramdas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Samarth" title="Swami Samarth">Samarth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sathya_Sai_Baba" title="Sathya Sai Baba">Sathya Sai Baba</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sai_Baba_of_Shirdi" title="Sai Baba of Shirdi">Shirdi Sai Baba</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Shraddhanand" title="Swami Shraddhanand">Shraddhanand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satyadhyana_Tirtha" title="Satyadhyana Tirtha">Satyadhyana Tirtha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siddharameshwar_Maharaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddharameshwar Maharaj">Siddharameshwar Maharaj</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sivananda_Saraswati" title="Sivananda Saraswati">Sivananda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trailanga" title="Trailanga">Trailanga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/U._G._Krishnamurti" title="U. G. Krishnamurti">U. G. Krishnamurti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Upasni_Maharaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Upasni Maharaj">Upasni Maharaj</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vethathiri_Maharishi" title="Vethathiri Maharishi">Vethathiri Maharishi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paramahansa_Yogananda" title="Paramahansa Yogananda">Yogananda</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9">
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81stra_pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87am_in_Hinduism" title="Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism">Sources and classification of scripture</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Smriti" title="Smriti">Smṛti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80c%C4%81ra" title="Ācāra">Ācāra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atmatusti" title="Atmatusti">Ātmatuṣṭi</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Scriptures</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Hindu_texts" title="Timeline of Hindu texts">Timeline of Hindu texts</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></i></li></ul>
<dl><dd><i>Divisions</i></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samhitapatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samhitapatha">Samhita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishad</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></div></dt></dl>
<dl><dd><i>Rigveda:</i></dd></dl>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki</a></i></li></ul>
<dl><dd><i>Yajurveda:</i></dd></dl>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitri</a></i></li></ul>
<dl><dd><i>Samaveda:</i></dd></dl>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></i></li></ul>
<dl><dd><i>Atharvaveda:</i></dd></dl>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></i></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Vedangas" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedangas">Vedangas</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic meter">Chandas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vyakarana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vyakarana">Vyakarana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha">Jyotisha</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Hindu scriptures">Other scriptures</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Agama_(Hinduism)" title="Agama (Hinduism)"><i>Agama</i>s (Hinduism)</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed; border-bottom:1px dotted"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Hindu scriptures">Other texts</a></div><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Vishnu_Purana" title="Vishnu Purana">Vishnu Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Devi_Bhagavata_Purana" title="Devi Bhagavata Purana">Devi Bhagavata Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81radeya_Purana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nāradeya Purana">Nāradeya Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Vamana_Purana" title="Vamana Purana">Vāmana Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Matsya_Purana" title="Matsya Purana">Matsya Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Garuda_Purana" title="Garuda Purana">Garuda Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Purana" title="Brahma Purana">Brahma Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81nda_Purana" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmānda Purana">Brahmānda Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Vaivarta_Purana" title="Brahma Vaivarta Purana">Brahma Vaivarta Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhavishya_Purana" title="Bhavishya Purana">Bhavishya Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Padma_Purana" title="Padma Purana">Padma Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Agni_Purana" title="Agni Purana">Agni Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Purana" title="Shiva Purana">Shiva Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Linga_Purana" title="Linga Purana">Linga Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Kurma_Purana" title="Kurma Purana">Kūrma Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Skanda_Purana" title="Skanda Purana">Skanda Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Varaha_Purana" title="Varaha Purana">Varaha Purana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81rkandeya_Purana" class="mw-redirect" title="Mārkandeya Purana">Mārkandeya Purana</a></i></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Itihasas" class="mw-redirect" title="Itihasas">Itihasas</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Vedas#Upaveda" title="Vedas">Upavedas</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhanurveda" title="Dhanurveda">Dhanurveda</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Gandharvaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandharvaveda">Gandharvaveda</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Sthapatyaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Sthapatyaveda">Sthapatyaveda</a></i></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">Shastras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">samhitas</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharma Shastra</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Artha Śastra</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Shilpa_Shastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Shilpa Shastra">Shilpa Shastra</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Kamasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamasutra">Kamasutra</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutras</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Samkhyapravachana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Samkhyapravachana Sutra">Samkhya Sutras</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Purva_Mimamsa_Sutras" title="Purva Mimamsa Sutras">Mimamsa Sutras</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramana Sutras</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Charaka_Samhita" title="Charaka Samhita">Charaka Samhita</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Panchatantra</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Divya_Prabandha" class="mw-redirect" title="Divya Prabandha">Divya Prabandha</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramcharitmanas" title="Ramcharitmanas">Ramcharitmanas</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Swarodaya" title="Shiva Swarodaya">Swara yoga</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Panchadasi" title="Panchadasi">Panchadasi</a></i></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotras</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_suktas_and_stutis" title="List of suktas and stutis">stutis</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kanakadh%C4%81ra_Stotram" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanakadhāra Stotram">Kanakadhāra Stotram</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Stuti" title="Shiva Stuti">Shiva Stuti</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Vayu_Stuti" title="Vayu Stuti">Vayu Stuti</a></i></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_literature" title="Tamil literature">Tamil literature</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Divya_Prabandham" class="mw-redirect" title="Divya Prabandham">Divya Prabandham</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Thiruppugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiruppugal">Thiruppugal</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkural">Tirukkural</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Kamba_Ramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamba Ramayanam">Kamba Ramayanam</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Aathichoodi" class="mw-redirect" title="Aathichoodi">Aathichoodi</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Abhirami_Anthadhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhirami Anthadhi">Abhirami Anthadhi</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;">Society</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9">
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna</a></div></dt></dl>
<dl><dd><i>Four varnas:</i></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudra</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><i><a href="/wiki/Avarna" class="mw-redirect" title="Avarna">Varna-less</a>:</i></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">Dalit</a></li></ul>
<dl><dd><i>Varna-related topics:</i></dd></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%81ti" title="Jāti">Jati</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Other society-related topics:</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Discrimination</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_organisations" title="List of Hindu organisations">Organisations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Reform movements</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Other topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9">
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_by_country" title="Hinduism by country">Hinduism by country</a></div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese Hinduism</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Shaktism" title="Caribbean Shaktism">Caribbean Shaktism</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hindu culture</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_architecture" title="Hindu architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Calendar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_iconography" title="Hindu iconography">Iconography</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage sites</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hinduism and other religions</div></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jainism and Hinduism">Jainism and Hinduism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">and Buddhism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Sikhism" title="Hinduism and Sikhism">and Sikhism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">and Judaism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinduism and Christianity">and Christianity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">and Islam</a></li>
<li><br /><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Hinduism" title="Criticism of Hinduism">Criticism</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Hinduism" title="Outline of Hinduism">Outline</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/16px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/23px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/31px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Hinduism portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hinduism" title="Template:Hinduism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hinduism" title="Template talk:Hinduism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hinduism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hinduism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Architecture_of_a_Vishnu_temple,_Nagara_style_with_Ardhamandapa,_Mandapa,_Garbha_Griya,_Sikhara,_Amalaka,_Kalasa_marked.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Architecture_of_a_Vishnu_temple%2C_Nagara_style_with_Ardhamandapa%2C_Mandapa%2C_Garbha_Griya%2C_Sikhara%2C_Amalaka%2C_Kalasa_marked.jpg/280px-Architecture_of_a_Vishnu_temple%2C_Nagara_style_with_Ardhamandapa%2C_Mandapa%2C_Garbha_Griya%2C_Sikhara%2C_Amalaka%2C_Kalasa_marked.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Architecture_of_a_Vishnu_temple%2C_Nagara_style_with_Ardhamandapa%2C_Mandapa%2C_Garbha_Griya%2C_Sikhara%2C_Amalaka%2C_Kalasa_marked.jpg/420px-Architecture_of_a_Vishnu_temple%2C_Nagara_style_with_Ardhamandapa%2C_Mandapa%2C_Garbha_Griya%2C_Sikhara%2C_Amalaka%2C_Kalasa_marked.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Architecture_of_a_Vishnu_temple%2C_Nagara_style_with_Ardhamandapa%2C_Mandapa%2C_Garbha_Griya%2C_Sikhara%2C_Amalaka%2C_Kalasa_marked.jpg/560px-Architecture_of_a_Vishnu_temple%2C_Nagara_style_with_Ardhamandapa%2C_Mandapa%2C_Garbha_Griya%2C_Sikhara%2C_Amalaka%2C_Kalasa_marked.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1508" data-file-height="1132" /></a><figcaption>Elements in a <a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Hindu temple architecture</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>A <b>Hindu temple</b>, also known as <b>ASS</b>, <b>Devasthanam</b>, or <b><a href="/wiki/Koil" title="Koil">Koil</a></b>, is a sacred place where <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a> worship and show their devotion to dieties through worship, sacrifice, and devotion. It is considered the house of the god to whom it is dedicated.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Michell1977p61_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michell1977p61-3">[3]</a></sup> The design, structure and symbolism of Hindu temples are deeply rooted in Vedic traditions, which use circles and squares in their architecture. The temple's design also represents the concept of recursion and the equivalence of the macrocosm and the microcosm through astronomical numbers and specific alignments related to the location of the temple and the connection between the deity and the worshipper.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> A temple incorporates all elements of the Hindu cosmos — presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of the Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life — symbolically presenting <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">artha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">kama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient Sanskrit texts of India (for example, the <a href="/wiki/Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Veda">Vedas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishads</a>), while their structural rules are described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture (<a href="/wiki/Var%C4%81hamihira" title="Varāhamihira">Bṛhat Saṃhitā</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vastu_shastra" title="Vastu shastra">Vāstu Śāstras</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-susanlchap4_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-susanlchap4-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup> A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and the economy have flourished.<sup id="cite_ref-bstein_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bstein-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hindu temples come in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> yet almost all of them share certain core ideas, symbolism and themes. They are found in South Asia, particularly <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, in Southeast Asian countries such as <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> and countries such as <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, and other countries with a significant Hindu population.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> The current state and outer appearance of Hindu temples reflect arts, materials and designs as they evolved over two millennia; they also reflect the effect of conflicts between <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinduism and Islam">Hinduism and Islam</a> since the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Akshardham_(North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Swaminarayan Akshardham (North America)">Swaminarayanan Akshardham</a> in <a href="/wiki/Robbinsville,_New_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="Robbinsville, New Jersey">Robbinsville</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> between the <a href="/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area" title="New York metropolitan area">New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delaware_Valley" title="Delaware Valley">Philadelphia</a> metropolitan areas, was inaugurated in 2014 as one of the world's largest Hindu temples.<sup id="cite_ref-LargestHinduTempleNJ_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LargestHinduTempleNJ-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Significance_and_meaning_of_a_temple"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Significance and meaning of a temple</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Forms_and_designs_of_Hindu_temples"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Forms and designs of Hindu temples</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Site"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Site</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Manuals"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Manuals</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Plan"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Plan</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Symbolism"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Symbolism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Building_teams"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Building teams</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Social_functions_of_Hindu_temples"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Social functions of Hindu temples</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Library_of_manuscripts"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Library of manuscripts</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Temple_schools"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Temple schools</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Hospitals,_community_kitchen,_monasteries"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Hospitals, community kitchen, monasteries</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Styles"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Styles</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Arts_inside_Hindu_temples"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Arts inside Hindu temples</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Historical_development_and_destruction"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Historical development and destruction</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Customs_and_etiquette"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Customs and etiquette</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Regional_variations_in_Hindu_temples"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Regional variations in Hindu temples</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Nagara_Architecture_of_North_Indian_temples"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Nagara Architecture of North Indian temples</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Temples_in_West_Bengal"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Temples in West Bengal</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Temples_in_Odisha"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Temples in Odisha</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Temples_of_Goa_and_Konkani"><span class="tocnumber">8.4</span> <span class="toctext">Temples of Goa and Konkani</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#South_Indian_and_Sri_Lankan_temples"><span class="tocnumber">8.5</span> <span class="toctext">South Indian and Sri Lankan temples</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Temples_in_Kerala"><span class="tocnumber">8.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Temples in Kerala</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Temples_in_Tamil_Nadu"><span class="tocnumber">8.5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Temples in Tamil Nadu</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Temples_in_Nepal"><span class="tocnumber">8.6</span> <span class="toctext">Temples in Nepal</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Khmer_Temples"><span class="tocnumber">8.7</span> <span class="toctext">Khmer Temples</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Temples_in_Indonesia"><span class="tocnumber">8.8</span> <span class="toctext">Temples in Indonesia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Temples_in_Vietnam"><span class="tocnumber">8.9</span> <span class="toctext">Temples in Vietnam</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Temples_in_Thailand"><span class="tocnumber">8.10</span> <span class="toctext">Temples in Thailand</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Temples_outside_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">8.11</span> <span class="toctext">Temples outside Asia</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#New_York/New_Jersey"><span class="tocnumber">8.11.1</span> <span class="toctext">New York/New Jersey</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Outside_New_York/New_Jersey"><span class="tocnumber">8.11.2</span> <span class="toctext">Outside New York/New Jersey</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Temple_management"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Temple management</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Etymology_and_nomenclature"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology and nomenclature</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Significance_and_meaning_of_a_temple">Significance and meaning of a temple</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>A Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a>, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man, deities, and the Universal <i>Puruṣa</i> in a sacred space.<sup id="cite_ref-gmichell88_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gmichell88-20">[20]</a></sup> It represents the triple-knowledge (trayi-<a href="/wiki/Vidya_(philosophy)" title="Vidya (philosophy)">vidya</a>) of the Vedic vision by mapping the relationships between the cosmos (<a href="/wiki/World_egg" class="mw-redirect" title="World egg">brahmaṇḍa</a>) and the cell (pinda) by a unique plan based on astronomical numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> Subhash Kak sees the temple form and its iconography to be a natural expansion of Vedic ideology related to recursion, change and equivalence.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
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<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:81_grid_Parama_Sayika_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/81_grid_Parama_Sayika_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg/360px-81_grid_Parama_Sayika_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/81_grid_Parama_Sayika_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg/540px-81_grid_Parama_Sayika_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/81_grid_Parama_Sayika_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg/720px-81_grid_Parama_Sayika_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="980" /></a><figcaption>The 9x9 (81) grid "Parama Sayika" layout plan (above) found in large ceremonial Hindu Temples. It is one of many grids used to build Hindu temples. In this structure of symmetry, each concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer, <i>Paisachika padas</i>, signifies aspects of Asuras and evil; while the inner <i>Devika padas</i> layer signifies aspects of Devas and good. In between the good and evil is the concentric layer of <i>Manusha padas</i>, signifying human life. All these layers surround <i>Brahma padas</i>, which signifies creative energy and the site for a temple's primary <i>murti</i> for darsana. Finally at the very center of the <i>Brahma padas</i> is the <i>Garbhagriha</i> (Purusa Space), signifying the Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup></figcaption></figure><p> In ancient Indian texts, a temple is a place of pilgrimage, known in India as a <i><a href="/wiki/Tirtha_and_Kshetra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirtha and Kshetra">Tirtha</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup> It is a sacred site whose ambience and design attempts to symbolically condense the ideal tenets of the Hindu way of life.<sup id="cite_ref-gmichell88_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gmichell88-20">[20]</a></sup> In a Hindu temple, all the cosmic components that produce and maintain life are there, from fire to water, from depictions of the natural world to gods, from genders that are feminine or masculine to those that are everlasting and universal.
</p><p>Susan Lewandowski states<sup id="cite_ref-susanlchap4_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-susanlchap4-10">[10]</a></sup> that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is the belief that all things are one, that everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64-grid or 81-grid mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life – the pursuit of <i><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">artha</a></i> (prosperity, wealth), of <i><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">kama</a></i> (pleasure, sex), of <i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a></i> (virtues, ethical life) and of <i><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a></i> (release, self-knowledge).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> At the centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deity</a>, is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing <i>Purusa</i>, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is omnipresent, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger the process of inner realization within the devotee.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup> The specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Hindu tradition, there is no dividing line between the <a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">secular</a> and the lonely sacred.<sup id="cite_ref-susanlchap4_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-susanlchap4-10">[10]</a></sup> In the same spirit, Hindu temples are not just sacred spaces; they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and purpose have extended beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus a social meaning. Some temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to celebrate arts through dance and music, to get married or commemorate marriages,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> the birth of a child, other significant life events or the death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu temples have served as a venue for succession within dynasties and landmarks around which economic activity thrived.<sup id="cite_ref-Susan_Lewandowski_pp_71-73_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Susan_Lewandowski_pp_71-73-28">[28]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Forms_and_designs_of_Hindu_temples">Forms and designs of Hindu temples</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Hindu temple architecture</a></div>
<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg/250px-Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg/375px-Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg/500px-Besakih_Bali_Indonesia_Pura-Besakih-02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="3840" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Besakih_Temple" title="Besakih Temple">Besakih Temple</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Almost all Hindu temples take two forms: a house or a palace. A house-themed temple is a simple shelter that serves as a deity's home. The temple is a place where the devotee visits, just like he or she would visit a friend or relative. The use of moveable and immoveable <a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">images</a> is mentioned by <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a> school of Hinduism, temples are venues for <a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">puja</a>, which is a hospitality ritual, where the deity is honored, and where devotee calls upon, attends to and connects with the deity. In other schools of Hinduism, the person may simply perform <i><a href="/wiki/Japa" title="Japa">japa</a></i>, or meditation, or <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">yoga</a>, or introspection in his or her temple. Palace-themed temples often incorporate more elaborate and monumental architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Site">Site</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The appropriate site for a temple, suggests ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, and where animals rest without fear of injury or harm.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup> These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-susanlchap4_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-susanlchap4-10">[10]</a></sup>
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<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg/400px-View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg/600px-View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg/800px-View_of_Bhutanatha_temple_in_Badami_during_monsoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3957" data-file-height="2373" /></a><figcaption>Hindu temple sites cover a wide range. The most common sites are those near water bodies, embedded in nature, such as the <a href="/wiki/Bhutanatha_group_of_temples,_Badami" title="Bhutanatha group of temples, Badami">Bhutanatha temple complex</a> at <a href="/wiki/Badami" title="Badami">Badami</a>, which is next to a <a href="/wiki/Waterfall" title="Waterfall">waterfall</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1211633275">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem">
<p>The gods always play where lakes are,<br />
where the sun's rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters,<br />
and where clear waterpaths are made by swans<br />
whose breasts toss the white lotus hither and thither,<br />
where swans, ducks, curleys and paddy birds are heard,<br />
and animals rest nearby in the shade of Nicula trees on the river banks.<br />
<br />
The gods always play where rivers have for their braclets<br />
the sound of curleys and the voice of swans for their speech,<br />
water as their garment, carps for their zone,<br />
the flowering trees on their banks as earrings,<br />
the confluence of rivers as their hips,<br />
raised sand banks as breasts and plumage of swans their mantle.<br />
<br />
The gods always play where groves are near, rivers, mountains and springs, and in towns with pleasure gardens.
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</div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Var%C4%81hamihira" title="Varāhamihira">Varāhamihira</a>, <i>Brhat Samhita</i> 1.60.4-8, 6th century CE<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup></cite></div></blockquote>
<p>While major Hindu temples are recommended at sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, <i>Brhat Samhita</i> and <i>Puranas</i> suggest temples may also be built where a natural source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is symbolically present at the consecration of the temple or the deity. Temples may also be built, suggests <i>Visnudharmottara</i> in Part III of Chapter 93,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, on mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Manuals">Manuals</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Ancient builders of Hindu temples created manuals of architecture, called <i><a href="/wiki/Vastu_shastra" title="Vastu shastra">Vastu-Sastra</a></i> (literally "science" of dwelling; <i>vas-tu</i> is a composite Sanskrit word; <i>vas</i> means "reside", <i>tu</i> means "you"); these contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling)<sup id="cite_ref-bbdutt_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbdutt-32">[32]</a></sup> and <i>Sastra</i> meaning system or knowledge in Sanskrit. There exist many Vastu-Sastras on the art of building temples, such as one by <a href="/wiki/Thakkura_Pheru" class="mw-redirect" title="Thakkura Pheru">Thakkura Pheru</a>, describing where and how temples should be built.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakramrisch76_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakramrisch76-33">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> Sanskrit manuals have been found in India since the 6th century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Vastu-Sastra manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning,<sup id="cite_ref-bbdutt_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbdutt-32">[32]</a></sup> and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherri_Silverman_2007_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherri_Silverman_2007-36">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup> While it is unclear, states Barnett,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice, the manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life.<sup id="cite_ref-bbdutt_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbdutt-32">[32]</a></sup>
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<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_of_Kandariya_Mahadeva_temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Plan_of_Kandariya_Mahadeva_temple.jpg/250px-Plan_of_Kandariya_Mahadeva_temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Plan_of_Kandariya_Mahadeva_temple.jpg/375px-Plan_of_Kandariya_Mahadeva_temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Plan_of_Kandariya_Mahadeva_temple.jpg/500px-Plan_of_Kandariya_Mahadeva_temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Ancient India produced many Sanskrit manuals for Hindu temple design and construction, covering arrangement of spaces (above) to every aspect of its completion. Yet, the Silpins were given wide latitude to experiment and express their creativity.<sup id="cite_ref-mmgeometry_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmgeometry-39">[39]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>The <i>Silpa Prakasa</i> of Odisha, authored by Ramacandra Bhattaraka Kaulacara in the 9th or 10th centuries CE, is another Sanskrit treatise on Temple Architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-aliceboner66_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aliceboner66-40">[40]</a></sup> Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in the eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example, in the <i>Saurastra</i> tradition of temple building found in western states of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of <i>Nataka-stri</i> compared to 16 types described in <i>Silpa Prakasa</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-aliceboner66_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aliceboner66-40">[40]</a></sup> Silpa Prakasa provides a brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as <i>Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana</i> compiled by Daniel Smith<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types.
</p><p>Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's <i>Prasadamandana</i> (literally, manual for planning and building a temple).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> <i>Manasara</i>, a text of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by the 7th century CE, is a guidebook on South Indian temple design and construction.<sup id="cite_ref-susanlchap4_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-susanlchap4-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> <i>Isanasivagurudeva paddhati</i> is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of temple building in India in south and central India.<sup id="cite_ref-skramrisch1958_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skramrisch1958-45">[45]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> In north India, <i>Brihat-samhita</i> by <a href="/wiki/Var%C4%81hamihira" title="Varāhamihira">Varāhamihira</a> is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction of <i>Nagara</i> style of Hindu temples.<sup id="cite_ref-mmgeometry_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmgeometry-39">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hgood_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hgood-47">[47]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Plan">Plan</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Plan</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:214px;max-width:214px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:171px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan-temple-konarak.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Plan-temple-konarak.png/212px-Plan-temple-konarak.png" decoding="async" width="212" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Plan-temple-konarak.png/318px-Plan-temple-konarak.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Plan-temple-konarak.png/424px-Plan-temple-konarak.png 2x" data-file-width="912" data-file-height="738" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Elements of a Hindu temple in Kalinga style. There are many Hindu temple styles, but they almost universally share common geometric principles, symbolism of ideas, and expression of core beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:174px;max-width:174px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:171px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:64_grid_Manduka_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/64_grid_Manduka_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg/172px-64_grid_Manduka_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="172" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/64_grid_Manduka_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg/258px-64_grid_Manduka_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/64_grid_Manduka_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg/344px-64_grid_Manduka_design_Hindu_Temple_Floor_Plan_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_Ancient_Architecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="880" data-file-height="880" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron center, where diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mmgeometry_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmgeometry-39">[39]</a></sup></div></div></div></div></div>
<p>A Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design called <i>vastu-purusha-mandala</i>. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. <i>Mandala</i> means circle, <i>Purusha</i> is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while <i>Vastu</i> means the dwelling structure.<sup id="cite_ref-sl6869_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sl6869-49">[49]</a></sup> The Vastu-purusha-mandala is a <a href="/wiki/Yantra" title="Yantra">yantra</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-stellakramrisch76_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakramrisch76-33">[33]</a></sup> a design laying out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.
</p><p>The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of the mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while the circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup> The square is divided into perfect 64 (or in some cases 81) sub-squares called padas.<sup id="cite_ref-mmgeometry_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmgeometry-39">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity. The central square(s) of the 64- or 81-grid is dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> (not to be confused with brahmin, the scholarly and priestly class in India), and are called <i>Brahma padas</i>.
</p><p>The 49-grid design is called <i>Sthandila</i> and is of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in South India, particularly in <i>Prakaras</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> The symmetric Vastu-purusa-mandala grids are sometimes combined to form a temple superstructure with two or more attached squares.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> The temples face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala pada facing sunrise is dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a>, the sun-god. The <i>Surya pada</i> is flanked by the padas of Satya, the deity of Truth, on one side and <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>, the king of the demigods, on other. The east and north faces of most temples feature a mix of gods and demigods; while the west and south feature demons and demigods related to the underworld.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> This <i>vastu-purusha-mandala</i> plan and symbolism is systematically seen in ancient Hindu temples on the Indian subcontinent as well as those in southeast Asia, with regional creativity and variations.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup>
</p><p>Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the all-pervasive, all-connecting Universal Spirit, the <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">highest reality</a>, the <i>purusha</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> This space is sometimes known as the <i>garbha-griya</i> (literally, “womb house”) – a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence.<sup id="cite_ref-sl6869_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sl6869-49">[49]</a></sup> In or near this space is typically a cult image — which, though many Indians may refer to casually as an idol, is more formally known as a <i>murti,</i> or the main worshippable deity, who varies with each temple. Often this <i>murti</i> gives the temple a local name, such as a <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> temple, <a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a> temple, <a href="/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rama</a> temple, <a href="/wiki/Narayana" title="Narayana">Narayana</a> temple, <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> temple, <a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a> temple, <a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a> temple, <a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a> temple, <a href="/wiki/Hanuman" title="Hanuman">Hanuman</a> temple, Surya temple, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-gmichell88_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gmichell88-20">[20]</a></sup> It is this <a href="/wiki/Garbhagriha" title="Garbhagriha">garbha-griya</a> which devotees seek for <i><a href="/wiki/Darshana" class="mw-redirect" title="Darshana">darsana</a></i> (literally, a sight of knowledge,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> or vision<sup id="cite_ref-sl6869_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sl6869-49">[49]</a></sup>).
</p><p>Above the <i>vastu-purusha-mandala</i> is a superstructure with a dome called <i><a href="/wiki/Shikhara" title="Shikhara">Shikhara</a></i> in north India, and <i><a href="/wiki/Vimana_(tower)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vimana (tower)">Vimana</a></i> in south India, that stretches towards the sky.<sup id="cite_ref-sl6869_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sl6869-49">[49]</a></sup> Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the dome may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, a cone or other mountain-like shape, once again using the principle of concentric circles and squares.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup> Scholars suggest that this shape is inspired by the cosmic mountain of Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of the gods, according to Vedic mythology.<sup id="cite_ref-sl6869_49-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sl6869-49">[49]</a></sup>
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Circle_and_squares_in_Hindu_temple_Spires_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Circle_and_squares_in_Hindu_temple_Spires_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala.svg/150px-Circle_and_squares_in_Hindu_temple_Spires_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Circle_and_squares_in_Hindu_temple_Spires_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala.svg/225px-Circle_and_squares_in_Hindu_temple_Spires_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Circle_and_squares_in_Hindu_temple_Spires_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala.svg/300px-Circle_and_squares_in_Hindu_temple_Spires_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hindu_temple_Spire_design_principle_concentric_circles_squares_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_without_label.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Hindu_temple_Spire_design_principle_concentric_circles_squares_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_without_label.svg/150px-Hindu_temple_Spire_design_principle_concentric_circles_squares_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_without_label.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Hindu_temple_Spire_design_principle_concentric_circles_squares_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_without_label.svg/225px-Hindu_temple_Spire_design_principle_concentric_circles_squares_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_without_label.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Hindu_temple_Spire_design_principle_concentric_circles_squares_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_without_label.svg/300px-Hindu_temple_Spire_design_principle_concentric_circles_squares_Vastu_Purusa_Mandala_without_label.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mwmmountain_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mwmmountain-58">[58]</a></sup></div></div></div></div>
<p>In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa, the universal essence.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup> Often this space is visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images may be stories from Hindu Epics; in others, they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice; in yet others, they may be <i>murtis</i> of locally worshipped deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life – kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is called <i>pradakshina</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-sl6869_49-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sl6869-49">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p>Large temples also have pillared halls, called <i>mandapa</i> — one of which, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The <i>mandapa</i> may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega-temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure,<sup id="cite_ref-Trivedi,_K._1989_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trivedi,_K._1989-59">[59]</a></sup> each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as "an organism of repeating cells".<sup id="cite_ref-Susan_Lewandowski_pp_71-73_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Susan_Lewandowski_pp_71-73-28">[28]</a></sup>
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:382px;max-width:382px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1_Virupaksha_temple_Gopuram_Hampi_Vijayanagar_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/1_Virupaksha_temple_Gopuram_Hampi_Vijayanagar_India.jpg/200px-1_Virupaksha_temple_Gopuram_Hampi_Vijayanagar_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/1_Virupaksha_temple_Gopuram_Hampi_Vijayanagar_India.jpg/300px-1_Virupaksha_temple_Gopuram_Hampi_Vijayanagar_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/1_Virupaksha_temple_Gopuram_Hampi_Vijayanagar_India.jpg/400px-1_Virupaksha_temple_Gopuram_Hampi_Vijayanagar_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:176px;max-width:176px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hindu_Temple,_Pushkar_(7438731182).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hindu_Temple%2C_Pushkar_%287438731182%29.jpg/174px-Hindu_Temple%2C_Pushkar_%287438731182%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hindu_Temple%2C_Pushkar_%287438731182%29.jpg/261px-Hindu_Temple%2C_Pushkar_%287438731182%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Hindu_Temple%2C_Pushkar_%287438731182%29.jpg/348px-Hindu_Temple%2C_Pushkar_%287438731182%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2706" data-file-height="2322" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">An illustration of Hindu temple Spires (<i>Shikhara, Vimana</i>) built using concentric circles and the rotating-squares principle. The left one is from Vijayanagar in <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, and the right one is from Pushkar in <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>.</div></div></div></div>
<p>The ancient texts on Hindu temple design, the <i>Vāstu-puruṣa-mandala</i> and <i>Vastu Śāstras</i>, do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> They describe the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sherri_Silverman_2007_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherri_Silverman_2007-36">[36]</a></sup>
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<dl><dt>Exceptions to the square grid principle</dt></dl>
<p>A predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect-square grid principle.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> However, there are some exceptions. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Teli_ka_Mandir" title="Teli ka Mandir">Telika</a> Mandir in <a href="/wiki/Gwalior" title="Gwalior">Gwalior</a>, built in the 8th century CE, is not a square but a rectangle in 2:3 proportion. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting that the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at the Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and at the Nakti-Mata temple near <a href="/wiki/Jaipur" title="Jaipur">Jaipur</a>, Rajasthan. <a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Meister" title="Michael W. Meister">Michael Meister</a> suggests that these exceptions mean that the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.<sup id="cite_ref-mmgeometry_39-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmgeometry-39">[39]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Symbolism">Symbolism</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaturbhuj_Temple,_Orchha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Chaturbhuj_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg/220px-Chaturbhuj_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Chaturbhuj_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg/330px-Chaturbhuj_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Chaturbhuj_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg/440px-Chaturbhuj_Temple%2C_Orchha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chaturbhuj_Temple_(Orchha)" title="Chaturbhuj Temple (Orchha)">Chaturbhuj Temple</a> at <a href="/wiki/Orchha" title="Orchha">Orchha</a>, is noted for having one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_Gopurams#Tallest_Vimana" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tallest Gopurams">tallest Vimana</a> among Hindu temples standing at 344 feet.</figcaption></figure>
<p>A Hindu temple is a symbolic reconstruction of the universe and the universal principles that enable everything in it to function.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakvol1011_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakvol1011-62">[62]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> The temples reflect Hindu philosophy and its diverse views on the cosmos and on truth.<sup id="cite_ref-Trivedi,_K._1989_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trivedi,_K._1989-59">[59]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p>Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet nor any binding holy book save the Vedas; Hindus can choose to be <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheistic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheistic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheistic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as <i>kṣaitrajña</i> (Sanskrit: क्षैत्रज्ञ)<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup>). It defines spiritual practice as one's journey towards <i><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a></i>, awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and content.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gf_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gf-68">[68]</a></sup> A Hindu temple reflects these core beliefs. The central core of almost all Hindu temples is not a large communal space; the temple is designed for the individual, a couple or a family – a small, private space to allow visitors to experience <i>darsana</i>.
</p><p><i>Darsana</i> is itself a symbolic word. In ancient Hindu scripts, <i>darsana</i> is the name of six methods or alternate viewpoints of understanding truth.<sup id="cite_ref-skv189_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skv189-69">[69]</a></sup> These are <i>Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa</i> and <i>Vedanta</i> – which flowered into individual schools of Hinduism, each of which is considered a valid, alternate path to understanding truth and achieving self-realization in the Hindu way of life.
</p><p>From names to forms, from images to stories carved into the walls of a temple, symbolism is everywhere in a Hindu temple. Life principles such as the pursuit of joy, connection and emotional pleasure (kama) are fused into mystical, erotic and architectural forms in Hindu temples. These motifs and principles of human life are part of the sacred texts of the Hindus, such as its Upanishads; the temples express these same principles in a different form, through art and spaces. For example, <i>Brihadaranyaka Upanisad</i> (4.3.21) recites:
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<p>In the embrace of the beloved, one forgets the whole world, everything both within and without;<br />
in the same way, one who embraces the Self knows neither within nor without.
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</div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka Upanishad</a>, 7th century BCE<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup></cite></div></blockquote>
<p>The architecture of Hindu temples is also symbolic. The whole structure fuses the daily life and its surroundings with the divine concepts, through a structure that is open yet raised on a terrace, transitioning from the secular towards the sacred,<sup id="cite_ref-eleach1983_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eleach1983-71">[71]</a></sup> inviting the visitor inwards and upwards towards the <i>Brahma pada,</i> the temple's central core, a symbolic space marked by its spire (<i>shikhara, vimana</i>). The ancient temples had grand, intricately carved entrances but no doors, and they lacked a boundary wall. In most cultures, suggests <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Edmund Leach</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-eleach1983_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eleach1983-71">[71]</a></sup> a boundary and gateway separates the secular and the sacred, and this gateway door is grand. In Hindu tradition, this is discarded in favor of an open and diffusive architecture, where the secular world was not separated from the sacred, but transitioned and flowed into the sacred.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup> The Hindu temple has structural walls, which were patterned usually within the 64-grid, or other geometric layouts. Yet the layout was open on all sides, except for the core space with a single opening for darsana. The temple space is laid out in a series of courts (<i>mandapas</i>). The outermost regions may incorporate the negative and suffering side of life with the symbolism of evil, <i>asuras</i> and <i>rakshashas</i>; but in small temples this layer is dispensed with. When present, this outer region diffuse into the next inner layer that bridges as human space, followed by another inner <i>Devika padas</i> space and symbolic arts incorporating the positive and joyful side of life about the good and the gods. This divine space then concentrically diffuses inwards and lifts the guest to the core of the temple, where resides the main <i>murti</i>, as well as the space for the <i>Purusa,</i> and ideas held to be most sacred principles in Hindu tradition. The symbolism in the arts and temples of Hinduism, suggests Edmund Leach, is similar to those in Christianity and other major religions of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Building_teams">Building teams</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:185px;max-width:185px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:141px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira,_1279_CE_Hindu_text_palm_leaf_manuscript,_Pratima_lakshana,_Sanskrit,_Nepalaksara_script,_folio_1_talapatra_from_a_Buddhist_monastery,_1v,_2r_2v_leaves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira%2C_1279_CE_Hindu_text_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Pratima_lakshana%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Nepalaksara_script%2C_folio_1_talapatra_from_a_Buddhist_monastery%2C_1v%2C_2r_2v_leaves.jpg/183px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="183" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira%2C_1279_CE_Hindu_text_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Pratima_lakshana%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Nepalaksara_script%2C_folio_1_talapatra_from_a_Buddhist_monastery%2C_1v%2C_2r_2v_leaves.jpg/275px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira%2C_1279_CE_Hindu_text_palm_leaf_manuscript%2C_Pratima_lakshana%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Nepalaksara_script%2C_folio_1_talapatra_from_a_Buddhist_monastery%2C_1v%2C_2r_2v_leaves.jpg/366px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="1560" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:103px;max-width:103px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:141px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira,_Hindu_text_copied_and_preserved_in_a_Jain_temple,_paper_manuscript,_Sanskrit,_Devanagari_script,_incomplete_folio_1r_1v_2r_leaves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira%2C_Hindu_text_copied_and_preserved_in_a_Jain_temple%2C_paper_manuscript%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_incomplete_folio_1r_1v_2r_leaves.jpg/101px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="101" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira%2C_Hindu_text_copied_and_preserved_in_a_Jain_temple%2C_paper_manuscript%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_incomplete_folio_1r_1v_2r_leaves.jpg/152px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira%2C_Hindu_text_copied_and_preserved_in_a_Jain_temple%2C_paper_manuscript%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari_script%2C_incomplete_folio_1r_1v_2r_leaves.jpg/202px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1504" data-file-height="2115" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:115px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira,_Bhattotpala_commentary_manuscript,_Chapter_3,_Sanskrit,_Grantha_script,_palm_leaf_1_2r_2v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira%2C_Bhattotpala_commentary_manuscript%2C_Chapter_3%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Grantha_script%2C_palm_leaf_1_2r_2v.jpg/288px-6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira%2C_Bhattotpala_commentary_manuscript%2C_Chapter_3%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Grantha_script%2C_palm_leaf_1_2r_2v.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira%2C_Bhattotpala_commentary_manuscript%2C_Chapter_3%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Grantha_script%2C_palm_leaf_1_2r_2v.jpg/432px-6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira%2C_Bhattotpala_commentary_manuscript%2C_Chapter_3%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Grantha_script%2C_palm_leaf_1_2r_2v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira%2C_Bhattotpala_commentary_manuscript%2C_Chapter_3%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Grantha_script%2C_palm_leaf_1_2r_2v.jpg/576px-6th-century_Brihat_Samhita_of_Varahamihira%2C_Bhattotpala_commentary_manuscript%2C_Chapter_3%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Grantha_script%2C_palm_leaf_1_2r_2v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2840" data-file-height="1140" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The 6th-century <i>Brihat samhita</i> is a Sanskrit encyclopedia. Its chapters 57-60 discuss different styles and design of Hindu temples. Above: the text and commentary in Nepalaksara, Devanagari and Tamil Grantha scripts.</div></div></div></div>
<p>Indian texts call the craftsmen and builders of temples "Silpin" (Sanskrit: शिल्पिन्<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup>), derived from "Silpa".<sup id="cite_ref-sparker1987_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sparker1987-75">[75]</a></sup> One of the earliest mentions of the Sanskrit word "Silpa" is in <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a>, from about 1000 BCE; according to scholars, the word was used to denote any work of art.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> Some scholars suggest that the word "Silpa" has no direct or one-word translation in English, nor does the word "Silpin". "Silpa", explains Stella Kramrisch,<sup id="cite_ref-skramrisch1958_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skramrisch1958-45">[45]</a></sup> is a multicolored word and incorporates art, skill, craft, ingenuity, imagination, form, expression and inventiveness of any art or craft. Similarly, "Shilpin", notes Kramrisch, is a complex Sanskrit word, describing any person who embodies art, science, culture, skill, and rhythm and employs creative principles to produce any divine form of expression. Silpins who built Hindu temples, as well as the artworks and sculptures within them, were considered by the ancient Sanskrit texts to deploy arts whose number are unlimited, Kala (techniques) that were 64 in number,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup> and Vidya (science) that were of 32 types.<sup id="cite_ref-skramrisch1958_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skramrisch1958-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Hindu manuals of temple construction describe the education, characteristics of good artists and architects. The general education of a Hindu Shilpin in ancient India included Lekha or Lipi (alphabet, reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana (arithmetic). These were imparted from age 5 to 12. The advanced students would continue in higher stages of Shilpa Sastra studies till the age of 25.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup> Apart from specialist technical competence, the manuals suggest that best Silpins for building a Hindu temple are those who know the essence of Vedas and Agamas, consider themselves as students, keep well verse with principles of traditional sciences and mathematics, painting and geography.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakramrisch76_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakramrisch76-33">[33]</a></sup> Further they are kind, free from jealousy, righteous, have their sense under control, of happy disposition, and ardent in everything they do.<sup id="cite_ref-skramrisch1958_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skramrisch1958-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to Silparatna, a Hindu temple project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and include a Sthapaka (guru, spiritual guide and architect-priest), a Sthapati (architect) who would design the building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons, painters, plasterers, overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors).<sup id="cite_ref-stellakramrisch76_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakramrisch76-33">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hgood_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hgood-47">[47]</a></sup> While the temple is under construction, all those working on the temple were revered and considered sacerdotal by the patron as well as others witnessing the construction.<sup id="cite_ref-sparker1987_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sparker1987-75">[75]</a></sup> Further, it was a tradition that all tools and materials used in temple building and all creative work had the sanction of a sacrament.<sup id="cite_ref-stellakramrisch76_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stellakramrisch76-33">[33]</a></sup> For example, if a carpenter or sculptor needed to fell a tree or cut a rock from a hill, he would propitiate the tree or rock with prayers, seeking forgiveness for cutting it from its surroundings, and explaining his intent and purpose. The axe used to cut the tree would be anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the tree.<sup id="cite_ref-skramrisch1958_45-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skramrisch1958-45">[45]</a></sup> Even in modern times, in some parts of India such as <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a>, Visvakarma Puja is a ritual festival every year where the craftsmen and artists worship their arts, tools and materials.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Social_functions_of_Hindu_temples">Social functions of Hindu temples</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:143px;max-width:143px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shiva_temple_with_trident_standard_Audumbara_State_Punjab_1st_century_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Shiva_temple_with_trident_standard_Audumbara_State_Punjab_1st_century_BCE.jpg/141px-Shiva_temple_with_trident_standard_Audumbara_State_Punjab_1st_century_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Shiva_temple_with_trident_standard_Audumbara_State_Punjab_1st_century_BCE.jpg/212px-Shiva_temple_with_trident_standard_Audumbara_State_Punjab_1st_century_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Shiva_temple_with_trident_standard_Audumbara_State_Punjab_1st_century_BCE.jpg/282px-Shiva_temple_with_trident_standard_Audumbara_State_Punjab_1st_century_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1464" data-file-height="1678" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Hindu Shiva temple depicted in a coin from the <a href="/wiki/1st_century_BC" title="1st century BC">1st century BCE</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:245px;max-width:245px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Keshav_Narayan_chowk,_Patan_Durbar_Square,_Lalitpur,_Nepal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Keshav_Narayan_chowk%2C_Patan_Durbar_Square%2C_Lalitpur%2C_Nepal.jpg/243px-Keshav_Narayan_chowk%2C_Patan_Durbar_Square%2C_Lalitpur%2C_Nepal.jpg" decoding="async" width="243" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Keshav_Narayan_chowk%2C_Patan_Durbar_Square%2C_Lalitpur%2C_Nepal.jpg/365px-Keshav_Narayan_chowk%2C_Patan_Durbar_Square%2C_Lalitpur%2C_Nepal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Keshav_Narayan_chowk%2C_Patan_Durbar_Square%2C_Lalitpur%2C_Nepal.jpg/486px-Keshav_Narayan_chowk%2C_Patan_Durbar_Square%2C_Lalitpur%2C_Nepal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Example of a Hindu temple constructed in the same manner as the one depicted in the coin.</div></div></div></div></div>
<p>Hindu temples served as nuclei of important social, economic, artistic and intellectual functions in ancient and medieval India.<sup id="cite_ref-michelltempleschool_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-michelltempleschool-81">[81]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Burton_Stein" title="Burton Stein">Burton Stein</a> states that South Indian temples managed regional development function, such as irrigation projects, land reclamation, post-disaster relief and recovery. These activities were paid for by the donations (melvarum) they collected from devotees.<sup id="cite_ref-bstein_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bstein-12">[12]</a></sup> According to James Heitzman, these donations came from a wide spectrum of the Indian society, ranging from kings, queens, officials in the kingdom to merchants, priests and shepherds.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> Temples also managed lands endowed to it by its devotees upon their death. They would provide employment to the poorest.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup> Some temples had large treasury, with gold and silver coins, and these temples served as banks.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sripuram_Temple_Full_View.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Sripuram_Temple_Full_View.jpg/250px-Sripuram_Temple_Full_View.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Sripuram_Temple_Full_View.jpg/375px-Sripuram_Temple_Full_View.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Sripuram_Temple_Full_View.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="335" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Golden_Temple,_Sripuram" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Temple, Sripuram">The Golden Temple</a> at <a href="/wiki/Vellore" title="Vellore">Vellore</a> is gilded with 1500 kg of pure gold.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Hindu temples over time became wealthy from grants and donations from royal patrons as well as private individuals. Major temples became employers and patrons of economic activity. They sponsored land reclamation and infrastructure improvements, states Michell, including building facilities such as water tanks, irrigation canals and new roads.<sup id="cite_ref-michell58_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-michell58-86">[86]</a></sup> A very detailed early record from 1101 lists over 600 employees (excluding the priests) of the <a href="/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple,_Thanjavur" class="mw-redirect" title="Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur">Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur</a>, still one of the largest temples in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>. Most worked part-time and received the use of temple farmland as reward.<sup id="cite_ref-michell58_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-michell58-86">[86]</a></sup> For those thus employed by the temple, according to Michell, "some gratuitous services were usually considered obligatory, such as dragging the temple chariots on festival occasions and helping when a large building project was undertaken".<sup id="cite_ref-michell58_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-michell58-86">[86]</a></sup> Temples also acted as refuge during times of political unrest and danger.<sup id="cite_ref-michell58_86-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-michell58-86">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>In contemporary times, the process of building a Hindu temple by emigrants and diasporas from South Asia has also served as a process of building a community, a social venue to network, reduce prejudice and seek civil rights together.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Library_of_manuscripts">Library of manuscripts</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1218072481">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Types of Hindu temples</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><table style="border-collapse:collapse;text-align:center;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;margin:auto;width:320px"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:160px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:160px;height:120px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Undavalli_Caves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Undavalli_Caves.jpg/160px-Undavalli_Caves.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Undavalli_Caves.jpg/240px-Undavalli_Caves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Undavalli_Caves.jpg/320px-Undavalli_Caves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3061" data-file-height="2038" /></a></span></div><div style="padding:1px">Cave temple</div></td><td style="width:160px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:160px;height:120px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hindu_temple_in_Ubud.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Hindu_temple_in_Ubud.jpg/160px-Hindu_temple_in_Ubud.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Hindu_temple_in_Ubud.jpg/240px-Hindu_temple_in_Ubud.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Hindu_temple_in_Ubud.jpg/320px-Hindu_temple_in_Ubud.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1589" data-file-height="963" /></a></span></div><div style="padding:1px">Forest temple</div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:160px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:160px;height:120px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Masrur_rockcut_temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Masrur_rockcut_temple.jpg/160px-Masrur_rockcut_temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Masrur_rockcut_temple.jpg/240px-Masrur_rockcut_temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Masrur_rockcut_temple.jpg/320px-Masrur_rockcut_temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6144" data-file-height="4096" /></a></span></div><div style="padding:1px">Mountain temple</div></td><td style="width:160px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:160px;height:120px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Somnath-current.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Somnath-current.jpg/160px-Somnath-current.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Somnath-current.jpg/240px-Somnath-current.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Somnath-current.jpg/320px-Somnath-current.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="534" /></a></span></div><div style="padding:1px">Seashore temple</div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi state Hindu temples served as centers where ancient manuscripts were routinely used for learning and where the texts were copied when they wore out.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> In South India, temples and associated <i>mathas</i> served custodial functions, and a large number of manuscripts on <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>, poetry, grammar and other subjects were written, multiplied and preserved inside the temples.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> Archaeological and epigraphical evidence indicates existence of libraries called <i>Sarasvati-bhandara</i>, dated possibly to early 12th-century and employing librarians, attached to Hindu temples.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup>
</p><p>Palm-leaf manuscripts called <a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript#Javanese_and_Balinese" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">lontar</a> in dedicated stone libraries have been discovered by archaeologists at Hindu temples in <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a> Indonesia and in 10th century Cambodian temples such as Angkor Wat and <a href="/wiki/Banteay_Srei" title="Banteay Srei">Banteay Srei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Temple_schools">Temple schools</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Inscriptions from the 4th century CE suggest the existence of schools around Hindu temples, called <i>Ghatikas</i> or <i>Mathas</i>, where the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> were studied.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup> In south India, 9th century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called <i>Calai</i> or <i>Salai</i>, and these provided free boarding and lodging to students and scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dayalan1992p202_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dayalan1992p202-94">[94]</a></sup> The temples linked to <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a> in the early 2nd millennium, were dominated by non-Brahmins.<sup id="cite_ref-scharfetempleschools_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scharfetempleschools-95">[95]</a></sup> These assumed many educational functions, including the exposition, recitation and public discourses of Sanskrit and Vedic texts.<sup id="cite_ref-scharfetempleschools_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scharfetempleschools-95">[95]</a></sup> Some temple schools offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting.<sup id="cite_ref-michelltempleschool_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-michelltempleschool-81">[81]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-scharfetempleschools2_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scharfetempleschools2-96">[96]</a></sup> By the 8th century, Hindu temples also served as the social venue for tests, debates, team competition and Vedic recitals called <i>Anyonyam</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-michelltempleschool_81-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-michelltempleschool-81">[81]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-scharfetempleschools2_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scharfetempleschools2-96">[96]</a></sup>
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<h3><span id="Hospitals.2C_community_kitchen.2C_monasteries"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Hospitals,_community_kitchen,_monasteries">Hospitals, community kitchen, monasteries</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>According to Kenneth G. Zysk – a professor specializing in Indology and ancient medicine, Hindu <i>mathas</i> and temples had by the 10th-century attached medical care along with their religious and educational roles.<sup id="cite_ref-Zysk1998p45_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zysk1998p45-97">[97]</a></sup> This is evidenced by various inscriptions found in Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and elsewhere. An inscription dated to about 930 CE states the provision of a physician to two <i>matha</i> to care for the sick and destitute. Another inscription dated to 1069 at a Vishnu temple in Tamil Nadu describes a hospital attached to the temple, listing the nurses, physicians, medicines and beds for patients. Similarly, a stone inscription in Andhra Pradesh dated to about 1262 mentions the provision of a <i>prasutishala</i> (maternity house), <i>vaidya</i> (physician), an <i>arogyashala</i> (health house) and a <i>viprasattra</i> (hospice, kitchen) with the religious center where people from all social backgrounds could be fed and cared for.<sup id="cite_ref-Zysk1998p45_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zysk1998p45-97">[97]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup> According to Zysk, both Buddhist monasteries and Hindu religious centers provided facilities to care for the sick and needy in the 1st millennium, but with the destruction of Buddhist centers after the 12th century, the Hindu religious institutions assumed these social responsibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Zysk1998p45_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zysk1998p45-97">[97]</a></sup> According to George Michell, Hindu temples in South India were active charity centers and they provided free meal for wayfarers, pilgrims and devotees, as well as boarding facilities for students and hospitals for the sick.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup>
</p><p>The 15th and 16th century Hindu temples at <a href="/wiki/Hampi" title="Hampi">Hampi</a> featured storage spaces (temple granary, <i>kottara</i>), water tanks and kitchens.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup> Many major pilgrimage sites have featured <i>dharmashalas</i> since early times. These were attached to Hindu temples, particularly in South India, providing a bed and meal to pilgrims. They relied on any voluntary donation the visitor may leave and to land grants from local rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-sen126_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sen126-103">[103]</a></sup> Some temples have operated their kitchens on a daily basis to serve the visitor and the needy, while others during major community gatherings or festivals. Examples include the major kitchens run by Hindu temples in <a href="/wiki/Udupi" title="Udupi">Udupi</a> (Karnataka), <a href="/wiki/Puri" title="Puri">Puri</a> (Odisha) and <a href="/wiki/Tirupati" title="Tirupati">Tirupati</a> (Andhra Pradesh). The tradition of sharing food in smaller temple is typically called <i>prasada</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-sen126_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sen126-103">[103]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Styles">Styles</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Hindu temples are found in diverse locations each incorporating different methods of construction and styles:
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<ul><li>Mountain<sup id="cite_ref-mwmmountain_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mwmmountain-58">[58]</a></sup> temples such as <a href="/wiki/Masrur_Temples" title="Masrur Temples">Masrur</a></li>
<li>Cave<sup id="cite_ref-mwmcaveforest_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mwmcaveforest-105">[105]</a></sup> temples such as Chandrabhaga, Chalukya<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ellora_Caves" title="Ellora Caves">Ellora</a></li>
<li>Stepwell temple compounds such as the <a href="/wiki/Mata_Bhavani%27s_Stepwell" title="Mata Bhavani's Stepwell">Mata Bhavani</a>, Ankol Mata and Huccimallugudi<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup></li>
<li>Forest<sup id="cite_ref-mwmcaveforest_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mwmcaveforest-105">[105]</a></sup> temples such as Kasaun and Kusama<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup></li>
<li>River bank and sea shore temples such as <a href="/wiki/Somnath_temple" title="Somnath temple">Somnath</a></li></ul>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rani_ki_vav_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Rani_ki_vav_07.jpg/200px-Rani_ki_vav_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Rani_ki_vav_07.jpg/300px-Rani_ki_vav_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Rani_ki_vav_07.jpg/400px-Rani_ki_vav_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5104" data-file-height="3403" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rani_ki_Vav_sculptures_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Rani_ki_Vav_sculptures_02.jpg/200px-Rani_ki_Vav_sculptures_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Rani_ki_Vav_sculptures_02.jpg/300px-Rani_ki_Vav_sculptures_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Rani_ki_Vav_sculptures_02.jpg/400px-Rani_ki_Vav_sculptures_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2888" data-file-height="1926" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Hindu deities, stepwell style.</div></div></div></div>
<dl><dt>Step well temples</dt></dl>
<p>In arid western parts of India, such as Rajasthan and Gujarat, Hindu communities built large walk-in wells that served as the only source of water in dry months but also served as social meeting places and carried religious significance. These monuments went down into the earth towards subterranean water, up to seven storeys, and were part of a temple complex.<sup id="cite_ref-jneubauer_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jneubauer-109">[109]</a></sup> These vav (literally, stepwells) had intricate art reliefs on the walls, with numerous <i>murtis</i> and images of Hindu deities, water spirits and erotic symbolism. The step wells were named after Hindu deities; for example, <a href="/wiki/Mata_Bhavani%27s_Stepwell" title="Mata Bhavani's Stepwell">Mata Bhavani's Stepwell</a>, Ankol Mata Vav, Sikotari Vav and others.<sup id="cite_ref-jneubauer_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jneubauer-109">[109]</a></sup> The temple ranged from being small single pada (cell) structure to large nearby complexes. These stepwells and their temple compounds have been variously dated from late 1st millennium BCE through 11th century CE. Of these, <a href="/wiki/Rani_ki_vav" class="mw-redirect" title="Rani ki vav">Rani ki vav</a>, with hundreds of art reliefs including many of <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> deity avatars, has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage site.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup>
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<dl><dt>Cave temples</dt></dl>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Indian_rock-cut_architecture" title="Indian rock-cut architecture">Indian rock-cut architecture</a> evolved in Maharashtran temple style in the 1st millennium CE. The temples are carved from a single piece of rock as a complete temple or carved in a cave to look like the interior of a temple. <a href="/wiki/Ellora" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellora">Ellora</a> Temple is an example of the former, while The <a href="/wiki/Elephanta_Caves" title="Elephanta Caves">Elephanta Caves</a> are representative of the latter style.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-111">[111]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Elephanta_Caves" title="Elephanta Caves">Elephanta Caves</a> consist of two groups of caves—the first is a large group of five Hindu caves and the second is a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The Hindu caves contain rock-cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-111">[111]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Arts_inside_Hindu_temples">Arts inside Hindu temples</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KAHLB_09_Dancing_Ganesha_Hoysaleswara.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/KAHLB_09_Dancing_Ganesha_Hoysaleswara.jpg/220px-KAHLB_09_Dancing_Ganesha_Hoysaleswara.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/KAHLB_09_Dancing_Ganesha_Hoysaleswara.jpg/330px-KAHLB_09_Dancing_Ganesha_Hoysaleswara.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/KAHLB_09_Dancing_Ganesha_Hoysaleswara.jpg/440px-KAHLB_09_Dancing_Ganesha_Hoysaleswara.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption>Dancing <a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a> sculpture at <a href="/wiki/Hoysaleswara_Temple" title="Hoysaleswara Temple">Hoysaleswara Temple</a>, intricate designs of <a href="/wiki/Hoysala_architecture" title="Hoysala architecture">Hoysala architecture</a> are seen.</figcaption></figure>
<p>A typical, ancient Hindu temple has a profusion of arts – from paintings to sculpture, from symbolic icons to engravings, from thoughtful layout of space to fusion of mathematical principles with Hindu sense of time and cardinality.
</p><p>Ancient Sanskrit texts classify <i>murtis</i> and images in a number of ways. For example, one method of classification is the dimensionality of completion:<sup id="cite_ref-grao1914_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grao1914-112">[112]</a></sup>
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<ul><li><b>Chitra</b>: images that are three-dimensional and completely formed</li>
<li><b>Chitrardha</b>: images that are engraved in half relief</li>
<li><b>Chitrabhasa</b>: images that are two-dimensional, such as paintings on walls and cloth</li></ul>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:231px;max-width:231px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kali_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kali_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg/120px-Kali_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kali_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg/180px-Kali_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kali_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg/240px-Kali_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4164" data-file-height="5783" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:105px;max-width:105px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Saraswati.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Saraswati.jpg/103px-Saraswati.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Saraswati.jpg/155px-Saraswati.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Saraswati.jpg/206px-Saraswati.jpg 2x" data-file-width="925" data-file-height="1496" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Images and <i>murtis</i> inside Hindu temples vary widely in their expression. <i>Raudra</i> or <i>ugra</i> images express destruction, fear and violence, such as the Kali image at left. <i>Shanta</i> or <i>saumya</i> images express joy, knowledge and harmony, such as the Saraswati image at right. <i>Saumya</i> images are most common in Hindu temples.</div></div></div></div>
<p>Another way of classification is by the expressive state of the image:
</p>
<ul><li><b>Raudra</b> or <b>Dugra</b>: are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have wide, circular eyes, carry weapons, have skulls and bones as adornment. These <i>murtis</i> were worshiped by soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress or terrors. Raudra deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably outside and in remote areas of a kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-grao1914_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grao1914-112">[112]</a></sup></li>
<li><b>Shanta</b> and <b>saumya</b>: are images that were pacific, peaceful and expressive of love, compassion, kindness and other virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry symbolic icons of peace, knowledge, music, wealth, flowers, sensuality among other things. In ancient India, these temples were predominant inside villages and towns.<sup id="cite_ref-grao1914_112-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grao1914-112">[112]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>A Hindu temple may or may not include a <i>murti</i> or images, but larger temples usually do. Personal Hindu temples at home or a hermitage may have a pada for yoga or meditation, but be devoid of anthropomorphic representations of god. Nature or others arts may surround him or her. To a Hindu yogin, states Gopinath Rao,<sup id="cite_ref-grao1914_112-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grao1914-112">[112]</a></sup> one who has realised the Self and the Universal Principle within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image for worship. However, for those who have yet to reach this height of realization, various symbolic manifestations through images, <i>murtis</i> and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. Some ancient Hindu scriptures like the Jabaladarshana Upanishad appear to endorse this idea<sup id="cite_ref-grao1914_112-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grao1914-112">[112]</a></sup>
</p>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem">
<p>शिवमात्मनि पश्यन्ति प्रतिमासु न योगिनः ।<br />
अज्ञानं भावनार्थाय प्रतिमाः परिकल्पिताः ॥५९॥<br />
- जाबालदर्शनोपनिषत्
</p>
</div>
<div class="poem">
<p>A yogin perceives god (Siva) within himself; images are for those who have not reached this knowledge.
</p>
</div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Jabaladarsana Upanishad</i>, verse 59<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup></cite></div></blockquote>
<p>However, devotees aspiring to a personal relationship with the Supreme Lord, whom they worship variously as Krishna or Shiva, for example, tend to reverse such hierarchical views of self-realization, holding that the personal form of the deity, as the source of the Brahma-jyoti, or the light into which impersonalists, according to their ideals, propose to merge themselves and their individual identities, will benevolently accept worship through an <i>arca vigraha,</i> an authorized form constructed not according to imagination but in pursuit of scriptural directives.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Historical_development_and_destruction">Historical development and destruction</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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href="/w/index.php?title=Hindu_temple&action=edit&section=14"title="Edit section: Historical development and destruction"
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</h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Hindu temple architecture</a></div>
<p>A number of ancient Indian texts suggest the prevalence of <i>murtis</i>, temples and shrines in Indian subcontinent for thousands of years. For example, the temples of the Koshala kingdom are mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Valmiki_Ramayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Valmiki Ramayana">Valmiki Ramayana</a><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup> (various recent scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE)<sup id="cite_ref-Brockington1998_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brockington1998-115">[115]</a></sup> The 5th century BCE text, <i><a href="/wiki/Astadhyayi" class="mw-redirect" title="Astadhyayi">Astadhyayi</a></i>, mentions male deity <i>arcas</i> or <i>murtis</i> of Agni, Indra, Varuna, Rudra, Mrda, Pusa, Surya, and Soma being worshipped, as well as the worship of arcas of female goddesses such as Indrani, Varunani, Usa, Bhavani, Prthivi and Vrsakapayi.<sup id="cite_ref-mm1988e_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mm1988e-116">[116]</a></sup> The 2nd century BCE "<a href="/wiki/Mahabhasya" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahabhasya">Mahabhasya</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a> extensively describes temples of <i>Dhanapati</i> (deity of wealth and finance, Kubera), as well as temples of Rama and Kesava, wherein the worship included dance, music and extensive rituals. The <i>Mahabhasya</i> also describes the rituals for Krsna, Visnu and Siva. An image recovered from Mathura in north India has been dated to the 2nd century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-mm1988e_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mm1988e-116">[116]</a></sup> Kautilya's <a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a> from 4th century BCE describes a city of temples, each enshrining various Vedic and Puranic deities. All three of these sources have common names, describe common rituals, symbolism and significance possibly suggesting that the idea of <i>murtis</i>, temples and shrines passed from one generation to next, in ancient India, at least from the 4th century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-mm1988e_116-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mm1988e-116">[116]</a></sup> The oldest temples, suggest scholars, were built of <a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">brick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dimension_stone" title="Dimension stone">Stone</a> became the preferred material of construction later.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Hindu_Temple_1946_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Hindu_Temple_1946-118">[118]</a></sup>
</p><p>Early Jain and Buddhist literature, along with Kautilya's Arthashastra, describe structures, embellishments and designs of these temples – all with motifs and deities currently prevalent in Hinduism. Bas-reliefs and <i>murtis</i> have been found from 2nd to 3rd century, but none of the temple structures have survived. Scholars<sup id="cite_ref-mm1988e_116-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mm1988e-116">[116]</a></sup> theorize that those ancient temples of India, later referred to as Hindu temples, were modeled after domestic structure – a house or a palace. Beyond shrines, nature was revered, in forms such as trees, rivers, and stupas, before the time of Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira. As Jainism and Buddhism branched off from the religious tradition later to be called Hinduism, the ideas, designs and plans of ancient Vedic and Upanishad era shrines were adopted and evolved, likely from the competitive development of temples and arts in Jainism and Buddhism. Ancient reliefs found so far, states Michael Meister,<sup id="cite_ref-mm1988e_116-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mm1988e-116">[116]</a></sup> suggest five basic shrine designs and combinations thereof in 1st millennium BCE:
</p>
<ol><li>A raised platform with or without a symbol</li>
<li>A raised platform under an umbrella</li>
<li>A raised platform under a tree</li>
<li>A raised platform enclosed with a railing</li>
<li>A raised platform inside a pillared pavilion</li></ol>
<p>Many of these ancient shrines were roofless, some had <i><a href="/wiki/Torana" title="Torana">toranas</a></i> and roof.
</p><p>From the 1st century BCE through 3rd century CE, the evidence and details about ancient temples increases. The ancient literature refers to these temples as <i>Pasada</i> (or Prasada), <i>stana</i>, <i>mahasthana</i>, <i>devalaya</i>, <i>devagrha</i>, <i>devakula</i>, <i>devakulika</i>, <i>ayatana</i> and <i>harmya</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-mm1988e_116-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mm1988e-116">[116]</a></sup> The entrance of the temple is referred to as <i>dvarakosthaka</i> in these ancient texts notes Meister,<sup id="cite_ref-mm1988e_116-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mm1988e-116">[116]</a></sup> the temple hall is described as <i>sabha</i> or <i>ayagasabha</i>, pillars were called <i>kumbhaka</i>, while <i>vedika</i> referred to the structures at the boundary of a temple.
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 220px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 218px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lad_NKAD90.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The 5th-century Ladkhan Shiva Temple, in the Aihole Hindu-Jain-Buddhist temple site, in Karnataka."><img alt="The 5th-century Ladkhan Shiva Temple, in the Aihole Hindu-Jain-Buddhist temple site, in Karnataka." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lad_NKAD90.JPG/327px-Lad_NKAD90.JPG" decoding="async" width="218" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lad_NKAD90.JPG/490px-Lad_NKAD90.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lad_NKAD90.JPG/653px-Lad_NKAD90.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="1490" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The 5th-century Ladkhan Shiva Temple, in the <a href="/wiki/Aihole" title="Aihole">Aihole</a> Hindu-Jain-Buddhist temple site, in <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 106.66666666667px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 104.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:5th_century_Hindu_temples_Eran_Madhya_Pradesh,_plan_sketched_in_1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Plan of 5th-century temples in Eran, Madhya Pradesh."><img alt="Plan of 5th-century temples in Eran, Madhya Pradesh." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/5th_century_Hindu_temples_Eran_Madhya_Pradesh%2C_plan_sketched_in_1880.jpg/157px-5th_century_Hindu_temples_Eran_Madhya_Pradesh%2C_plan_sketched_in_1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/5th_century_Hindu_temples_Eran_Madhya_Pradesh%2C_plan_sketched_in_1880.jpg/235px-5th_century_Hindu_temples_Eran_Madhya_Pradesh%2C_plan_sketched_in_1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/5th_century_Hindu_temples_Eran_Madhya_Pradesh%2C_plan_sketched_in_1880.jpg/314px-5th_century_Hindu_temples_Eran_Madhya_Pradesh%2C_plan_sketched_in_1880.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1420" data-file-height="1630" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Plan of 5th-century temples in <a href="/wiki/Eran" title="Eran">Eran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a>.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 92px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 90px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_the_Remains_of_the_Dashavatara_Temple_in_Deogarh.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The early 6th-century Dashavatara Temple in the Deogarh complex has a simple, one-cell plan."><img alt="The early 6th-century Dashavatara Temple in the Deogarh complex has a simple, one-cell plan." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/View_of_the_Remains_of_the_Dashavatara_Temple_in_Deogarh.jpg/135px-View_of_the_Remains_of_the_Dashavatara_Temple_in_Deogarh.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/View_of_the_Remains_of_the_Dashavatara_Temple_in_Deogarh.jpg/202px-View_of_the_Remains_of_the_Dashavatara_Temple_in_Deogarh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/View_of_the_Remains_of_the_Dashavatara_Temple_in_Deogarh.jpg/270px-View_of_the_Remains_of_the_Dashavatara_Temple_in_Deogarh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2386" data-file-height="3184" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The early 6th-century <a href="/wiki/Dashavatara_Temple,_Deogarh" title="Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh">Dashavatara Temple</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Deogarh,_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh">Deogarh complex</a> has a simple, one-cell plan.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 114px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 112px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1880_sketch_of_early_6th_century_Deogarh_Dashavatara_Hindu_temple_plan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="1880 sketch of the 9-square floorplan of the same temple (not to scale or complete). For better drawings:[119]"><img alt="1880 sketch of the 9-square floorplan of the same temple (not to scale or complete). For better drawings:[119]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/1880_sketch_of_early_6th_century_Deogarh_Dashavatara_Hindu_temple_plan.jpg/168px-1880_sketch_of_early_6th_century_Deogarh_Dashavatara_Hindu_temple_plan.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/1880_sketch_of_early_6th_century_Deogarh_Dashavatara_Hindu_temple_plan.jpg/252px-1880_sketch_of_early_6th_century_Deogarh_Dashavatara_Hindu_temple_plan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/1880_sketch_of_early_6th_century_Deogarh_Dashavatara_Hindu_temple_plan.jpg/336px-1880_sketch_of_early_6th_century_Deogarh_Dashavatara_Hindu_temple_plan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1386" data-file-height="1486" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">1880 sketch of the 9-square floorplan of the same temple (not to scale or complete). For better drawings:<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 134px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 132px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_of_6th_century_Badami_Cave_3_Hindu_temple,_annotated.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Layout of Cave 3 temple of the 6th-century Chalukyan-style Badami cave temples"><img alt="Layout of Cave 3 temple of the 6th-century Chalukyan-style Badami cave temples" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Plan_of_6th_century_Badami_Cave_3_Hindu_temple%2C_annotated.jpg/198px-Plan_of_6th_century_Badami_Cave_3_Hindu_temple%2C_annotated.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Plan_of_6th_century_Badami_Cave_3_Hindu_temple%2C_annotated.jpg/297px-Plan_of_6th_century_Badami_Cave_3_Hindu_temple%2C_annotated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Plan_of_6th_century_Badami_Cave_3_Hindu_temple%2C_annotated.jpg/396px-Plan_of_6th_century_Badami_Cave_3_Hindu_temple%2C_annotated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="643" data-file-height="584" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Layout of Cave 3 temple of the 6th-century <a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty#Architecture" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukyan</a>-style <a href="/wiki/Badami_cave_temples" title="Badami cave temples">Badami cave temples</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Elephanta_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Plan of the 6th-century main-cave temple at Elephanta."><img alt="Plan of the 6th-century main-cave temple at Elephanta." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Elephanta_Map.svg/225px-Elephanta_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Elephanta_Map.svg/338px-Elephanta_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Elephanta_Map.svg/450px-Elephanta_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Plan of the 6th-century main-cave temple at <a href="/wiki/Elephanta_Caves" title="Elephanta Caves">Elephanta</a>.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 159.33333333333px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 157.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:6th_century_Cave_1_temple_Elephanta_island_Mandala_Mumbai_harbor.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Elephanta main cave is thought to follow this mandala design.[120]"><img alt="The Elephanta main cave is thought to follow this mandala design.[120]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/6th_century_Cave_1_temple_Elephanta_island_Mandala_Mumbai_harbor.svg/236px-6th_century_Cave_1_temple_Elephanta_island_Mandala_Mumbai_harbor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="158" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/6th_century_Cave_1_temple_Elephanta_island_Mandala_Mumbai_harbor.svg/354px-6th_century_Cave_1_temple_Elephanta_island_Mandala_Mumbai_harbor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/6th_century_Cave_1_temple_Elephanta_island_Mandala_Mumbai_harbor.svg/471px-6th_century_Cave_1_temple_Elephanta_island_Mandala_Mumbai_harbor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="764" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Elephanta main cave is thought to follow this mandala design.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 189.33333333333px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 187.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Durga_Temple_Ceiling,_Aihole,_Karnataka.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A 7th century Chalukyan-style temple ceiling, also in Aihole."><img alt="A 7th century Chalukyan-style temple ceiling, also in Aihole." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Durga_Temple_Ceiling%2C_Aihole%2C_Karnataka.jpg/281px-Durga_Temple_Ceiling%2C_Aihole%2C_Karnataka.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Durga_Temple_Ceiling%2C_Aihole%2C_Karnataka.jpg/421px-Durga_Temple_Ceiling%2C_Aihole%2C_Karnataka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Durga_Temple_Ceiling%2C_Aihole%2C_Karnataka.jpg/562px-Durga_Temple_Ceiling%2C_Aihole%2C_Karnataka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1023" data-file-height="656" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">A 7th century <a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty#Architecture" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukyan</a>-style temple ceiling, also in Aihole.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155.33333333333px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 153.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rani_ki_vav1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rani ki Vav is an 11th-century stepwell, built by the Chaulukya dynasty, located in Patan. The stepwell remains well-preserved, but is partly silted over."><img alt="Rani ki Vav is an 11th-century stepwell, built by the Chaulukya dynasty, located in Patan. The stepwell remains well-preserved, but is partly silted over." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Rani_ki_vav1.jpg/230px-Rani_ki_vav1.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Rani_ki_vav1.jpg/345px-Rani_ki_vav1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Rani_ki_vav1.jpg/459px-Rani_ki_vav1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9473" data-file-height="7427" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Rani_ki_Vav" title="Rani ki Vav">Rani ki Vav</a> is an 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Stepwell" title="Stepwell">stepwell</a>, built by the <a href="/wiki/Chaulukya_dynasty" title="Chaulukya dynasty">Chaulukya dynasty</a>, located in <a href="/wiki/Patan,_Gujarat" title="Patan, Gujarat">Patan</a>. The stepwell remains well-preserved, but is partly silted over.</div>
</li>
</ul>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1218072481"><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Ancient Hindu temples outside the Indian subcontinent</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><table style="border-collapse:collapse;text-align:center;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;margin:auto;width:320px"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:160px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:160px;height:120px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B3%D1%8F%D1%85_%D0%B2_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B3%D1%8F%D1%85_%D0%B2_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8.jpg/160px-%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B3%D1%8F%D1%85_%D0%B2_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B3%D1%8F%D1%85_%D0%B2_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8.jpg/240px-%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B3%D1%8F%D1%85_%D0%B2_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B3%D1%8F%D1%85_%D0%B2_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8.jpg/320px-%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B3%D1%8F%D1%85_%D0%B2_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="359" /></a></span></div><div style="padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/Ateshgah_of_Baku" title="Ateshgah of Baku">Ateshgah</a> temple, used for Hindu, Sikh, and Zoroastrian worship, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></div></td><td style="width:160px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:160px;height:120px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Angkor_Wat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Angkor_Wat.jpg/160px-Angkor_Wat.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Angkor_Wat.jpg/240px-Angkor_Wat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Angkor_Wat.jpg/320px-Angkor_Wat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2004" data-file-height="1362" /></a></span></div><div style="padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/Angkor_Wat" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:160px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:160px;height:120px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Prambanan_Shiva_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Prambanan_Shiva_Temple.jpg/160px-Prambanan_Shiva_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Prambanan_Shiva_Temple.jpg/240px-Prambanan_Shiva_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Prambanan_Shiva_Temple.jpg/320px-Prambanan_Shiva_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div><div style="padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/Prambanan" title="Prambanan">Prambanan</a> temple, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></div></td><td style="width:160px;text-align:center;:"><div style="display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle;width:160px;height:120px;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Po_Nagar_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Po_Nagar_1.jpg/160px-Po_Nagar_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Po_Nagar_1.jpg/240px-Po_Nagar_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Po_Nagar_1.jpg/320px-Po_Nagar_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div><div style="padding:1px"><a href="/wiki/Po_Nagar" title="Po Nagar">Po Nagar</a> temple, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>With the start of <a href="/wiki/Gupta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gupta dynasty">Gupta dynasty</a> in the 4th century, Hindu temples flourished in innovation, design, scope, form, use of stone and new materials as well as symbolic synthesis of culture and <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharmic</a> principles with artistic expression.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup> It is this period that is credited with the ideas of garbhagrha for <i>Purusa</i>, mandapa for sheltering the devotees and rituals in progress, as well as symbolic motifs relating to dharma, karma, kama, artha and moksha. Temple superstructures were built from stone, brick and wide range of materials. Entrance ways, walls and pillars were intricately carved, while parts of temple were decorated with gold, silver and jewels. Visnu, Siva and other deities were placed in Hindu temples, while Buddhists and Jains built their own temples, often side by side with Hindus.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup>
</p><p>The 4th through 6th century marked the flowering of <i>Vidharbha</i> style, whose accomplishments survive in central India as <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajanta caves">Ajanta caves</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pavnar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pavnar (page does not exist)">Pavnar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandhal" title="Mandhal">Mandhal</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahesvar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mahesvar (page does not exist)">Mahesvar</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Malaprabha_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaprabha river">Malaprabha river</a> basin, South India, this period is credited with some of the earliest stone temples of the region: the <a href="/wiki/Badami_Chalukya_architecture" title="Badami Chalukya architecture">Badami Chalukya</a> temples are dated to the 5th century by some scholars,<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup> and the 6th by some others.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup>
</p><p>Over 6th and 7th centuries, temple designs were further refined during <a href="/wiki/Maurya" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurya">Maurya</a> dynasty, evidence of which survives today at <a href="/wiki/Ellora" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellora">Ellora</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Elephanta_Caves" title="Elephanta Caves">Elephanta cave temples</a>.
</p><p>It is the 5th through 7th century CE when outer design and appearances of Hindu temples in north India and south India began to widely diverge.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup> Nevertheless, the forms, theme, symbolism and central ideas in the grid design remained same, before and after, pan-India as innovations were adopted to give distinctly different visual expressions.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_architecture" title="Western Chalukya architecture">Western Chalukya architecture</a> of the 11th- & 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Tungabhadra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tungabhadra">Tungabhadra</a> region of modern central <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a> includes many temples. <a href="/wiki/Step-well" class="mw-redirect" title="Step-well">Step-wells</a> are consist of a shaft dug to the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a>, with steps descending to the water; while they were built for secular purposes, some are also decorated as temples, or serve as a <a href="/wiki/Temple_tank" title="Temple tank">temple tank</a>.
</p><p>During the 5th to 11th century, Hindu temples flourished outside Indian subcontinent, such as in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. In Cambodia, <a href="/wiki/Khmer_architecture" title="Khmer architecture">Khmer architecture</a> favoured the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_architecture#Temple_mountain" title="Khmer architecture">Temple mountain</a> style famously used in Angkor Wat, with a <a href="/wiki/Prang_(architecture)" title="Prang (architecture)">prang</a> spire over the sanctum cell. Indonesian <a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">candi</a> developed regional forms. In what is modern south and central Vietnam, <a href="/wiki/Art_of_Champa#Temples_of_brick" title="Art of Champa">Champa architecture</a> built brick temples.
</p><p>Destruction, conversion, and rebuilding
Many Hindu temples have been destroyed, some, after rebuilding, several times. Deliberate temple destruction usually had religious motives. Richard Eaton has listed 80 campaigns of Hindu temple site destruction stretching over centuries, particularly from the 12th through the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup> Others temples have served as non-Hindu places of worship, either after conversion or simultaneously with Hindu use.
</p><p>In the 12th-16th century, during <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent</a> and South Asia, Hindu temples, along with the temples of Buddhists and Jains, intermittently became targets of armies from Persian, Central Asian, and Indian sultanates. Imagined by these foreign zealots to be mere idols, sacred <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">Forms of various deities</a> were broken, spires and pillars were torn down, and temples were looted of their treasury. Some temples were <a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_non-Islamic_places_of_worship_into_mosques" title="Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques">converted into mosques</a>, or parts used to build mosques.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup> There exist both <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_India#Tradition_of_religious_freedom" title="Freedom of religion in India">Indian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Muslim traditions</a> of religious toleration. Muslim rulers led campaigns of temple destruction and forbade repairs to damaged temples, following the Muslim traditions. The <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> destroyed a large number of temples; <a href="/wiki/Sikandar_Shah_Miri" title="Sikandar Shah Miri">Sikandar the Iconoclast</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Kashmir#Prelude_and_Kashmir_Sultanate_(1346–1580s)" title="History of Kashmir">Sultan of Kashmir</a>, was also known for his intolerance.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup>
</p><p>The 16th- and 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a> destroyed hundreds of Hindu temples. All Hindu temples in Portuguese colonies in India were destroyed, according to a 1569 letter in the Portuguese royal archives.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup> <span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var( --color-emphasized, #595959 ); border:1px solid #DDD;">Temples were not converted into churches.</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Religious conflict and desecrations of places of worship continued during the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British colonial era</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup>
Historian Sita Ram Goel's book "What happened to Hindu Temples" lists over 2000 sites where temples have been destroyed and mosques have been built over them. Some historians suggest that around 30,000 temples were destroyed by Islamic rulers between 1200 and 1800 CE.
Destruction of Hindu temple sites was comparatively less in the southern parts of India, such as in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>. Cave-style Hindu temples that were carved inside a rock, hidden and rediscovered centuries later, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kailasa_Temple,_Ellora" title="Kailasa Temple, Ellora">Kailasa Temple</a>, have also preferentially survived. Many are now UNESCO world heritage sites.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="general statement (August 2019)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In India, the Place of Worship (Special Provisions) Act was enacted in 1991 which prohibited the conversion of any religious site from the religion to which it was dedicated on 15 August 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 282px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 280px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Somnath_temple_ruins_(1869).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Somnath temple in Gujarat was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. Here it is shown in 1869, after having been ruined by order of Aurangzeb in 1665. These ruins were demolished and the temple rebuilt in the 1950s."><img alt="The Somnath temple in Gujarat was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. Here it is shown in 1869, after having been ruined by order of Aurangzeb in 1665. These ruins were demolished and the temple rebuilt in the 1950s." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg/420px-Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg/630px-Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg/839px-Somnath_temple_ruins_%281869%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="852" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Somnath_temple" title="Somnath temple">Somnath temple</a> in Gujarat was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. Here it is shown in 1869, after having been ruined by order of <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a> in 1665. These ruins were demolished and the temple rebuilt in the 1950s.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 177.33333333333px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 175.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Benares-_The_Golden_Temple,_India,_ca._1915_(IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kashi Vishwanath Temple was destroyed by the army of Qutb ud-Din Aibak in 1194 CE. Since then, it has been demolished twice (in the 1400s, and 1669 CE) and rebuilt four times (in the 1200s, twice in the 1500s under Akbar, and in the 1800s). Shown is the current 1800s temple, with the white domes and minaret of the co-located 1600s Gyanvapi Mosque in the background. The tonne of gold for the temple roof was donated by Ranjit Singh in 1835.[136][137]"><img alt="The Kashi Vishwanath Temple was destroyed by the army of Qutb ud-Din Aibak in 1194 CE. Since then, it has been demolished twice (in the 1400s, and 1669 CE) and rebuilt four times (in the 1200s, twice in the 1500s under Akbar, and in the 1800s). Shown is the current 1800s temple, with the white domes and minaret of the co-located 1600s Gyanvapi Mosque in the background. The tonne of gold for the temple roof was donated by Ranjit Singh in 1835.[136][137]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Benares-_The_Golden_Temple%2C_India%2C_ca._1915_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66%29.jpg/263px-Benares-_The_Golden_Temple%2C_India%2C_ca._1915_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="176" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Benares-_The_Golden_Temple%2C_India%2C_ca._1915_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66%29.jpg/395px-Benares-_The_Golden_Temple%2C_India%2C_ca._1915_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Benares-_The_Golden_Temple%2C_India%2C_ca._1915_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66%29.jpg/526px-Benares-_The_Golden_Temple%2C_India%2C_ca._1915_%28IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="3829" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Kashi_Vishwanath_Temple" title="Kashi Vishwanath Temple">Kashi Vishwanath Temple</a> was destroyed by the army of <a href="/wiki/Qutb_ud-Din_Aibak" title="Qutb ud-Din Aibak">Qutb ud-Din Aibak</a> in 1194 CE. Since then, it has been demolished twice (in the 1400s, and 1669 CE) and rebuilt four times (in the 1200s, twice in the 1500s under <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a>, and in the 1800s). Shown is the current 1800s temple, with the white domes and minaret of the co-located 1600s <a href="/wiki/Gyanvapi_Mosque" title="Gyanvapi Mosque">Gyanvapi Mosque</a> in the background. The tonne of gold for the temple roof was donated by <a href="/wiki/Ranjit_Singh" title="Ranjit Singh">Ranjit Singh</a> in 1835.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Madhuri_2007_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Madhuri_2007-137">[137]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 204px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 202px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_Of_The_Ancient_Temple_Of_Vishveshvur_by_James_Prinsep_1832.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An 1832 reconstruction of the 1500s temple Akbar funded. James Prinsep based the reconstruction on the foundations of the Gyanvapi Mosque. Many Hindu temples were rebuilt as mosques between 12th and 18th century CE."><img alt="An 1832 reconstruction of the 1500s temple Akbar funded. James Prinsep based the reconstruction on the foundations of the Gyanvapi Mosque. Many Hindu temples were rebuilt as mosques between 12th and 18th century CE." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Plan_Of_The_Ancient_Temple_Of_Vishveshvur_by_James_Prinsep_1832.jpg/303px-Plan_Of_The_Ancient_Temple_Of_Vishveshvur_by_James_Prinsep_1832.jpg" decoding="async" width="202" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Plan_Of_The_Ancient_Temple_Of_Vishveshvur_by_James_Prinsep_1832.jpg/455px-Plan_Of_The_Ancient_Temple_Of_Vishveshvur_by_James_Prinsep_1832.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Plan_Of_The_Ancient_Temple_Of_Vishveshvur_by_James_Prinsep_1832.jpg/606px-Plan_Of_The_Ancient_Temple_Of_Vishveshvur_by_James_Prinsep_1832.jpg 2x" data-file-width="685" data-file-height="712" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">An 1832 reconstruction of the 1500s temple Akbar funded. <a href="/wiki/James_Prinsep" title="James Prinsep">James Prinsep</a> based the reconstruction on the foundations of the Gyanvapi Mosque. Many Hindu temples were rebuilt as <a href="/wiki/Mosques" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosques">mosques</a> between 12th and 18th century CE.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 284px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 282px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ruins of the Martand Sun Temple after being destroyed on the orders of the Sultan of Kashmir, Sikandar the Iconoclast, in the early 15th century, with demolition lasting a year."><img alt="Ruins of the Martand Sun Temple after being destroyed on the orders of the Sultan of Kashmir, Sikandar the Iconoclast, in the early 15th century, with demolition lasting a year." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg/423px-Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg" decoding="async" width="282" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg/635px-Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg/846px-Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg 2x" data-file-width="956" data-file-height="712" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Martand_Sun_Temple" title="Martand Sun Temple">Martand Sun Temple</a> after being destroyed on the orders of the Sultan of Kashmir, <a href="/wiki/Sikandar_Butshikan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikandar Butshikan">Sikandar the Iconoclast</a>, in the early 15th century, with demolition lasting a year.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 282.66666666667px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 280.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_de_M%C3%AEn%C3%A2ksh%C3%AE01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="In the 14th century, the armies of Delhi Sultanate, led by Malik Kafur, plundered the Meenakshi Temple and looted it of its valuables; it was rebuilt and expanded in the 16th century."><img alt="In the 14th century, the armies of Delhi Sultanate, led by Malik Kafur, plundered the Meenakshi Temple and looted it of its valuables; it was rebuilt and expanded in the 16th century." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Temple_de_M%C3%AEn%C3%A2ksh%C3%AE01.jpg/421px-Temple_de_M%C3%AEn%C3%A2ksh%C3%AE01.jpg" decoding="async" width="281" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Temple_de_M%C3%AEn%C3%A2ksh%C3%AE01.jpg/632px-Temple_de_M%C3%AEn%C3%A2ksh%C3%AE01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Temple_de_M%C3%AEn%C3%A2ksh%C3%AE01.jpg/842px-Temple_de_M%C3%AEn%C3%A2ksh%C3%AE01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2502" data-file-height="1872" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">In the 14th century, the armies of <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Malik_Kafur" title="Malik Kafur">Malik Kafur</a>, plundered the <a href="/wiki/Meenakshi_Temple" title="Meenakshi Temple">Meenakshi Temple</a> and looted it of its valuables; it was rebuilt and expanded in the 16th century.</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 130.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warangal_fort.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kakatiya Kala Thoranam (the Warangal Gate) built in the 12th century by the Kakatiya dynasty; the Warangal Fort temple complex was destroyed in the 1300s by the Delhi Sultanate.[138]"><img alt="Kakatiya Kala Thoranam (the Warangal Gate) built in the 12th century by the Kakatiya dynasty; the Warangal Fort temple complex was destroyed in the 1300s by the Delhi Sultanate.[138]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Warangal_fort.jpg/196px-Warangal_fort.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Warangal_fort.jpg/294px-Warangal_fort.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Warangal_fort.jpg/392px-Warangal_fort.jpg 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="851" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_Kala_Thoranam" title="Kakatiya Kala Thoranam">Kakatiya Kala Thoranam</a> (the Warangal Gate) built in the 12th century by the <a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya dynasty</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Warangal_Fort" title="Warangal Fort">Warangal Fort</a> temple complex <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Warangal_(1323)" title="Siege of Warangal (1323)">was destroyed</a> in the 1300s by the Delhi Sultanate.<sup id="cite_ref-re2000_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-re2000-138">[138]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132.66666666667px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 130.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Elevation_of_Kirtistambh_Rudramahalaya_Sidhpur_Gujarat_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Artistic rendition of the Kirtistambh, a surviving portion of the 10-11th century Rudra Mahalaya Temple. The temple was partly destroyed by the Sultan of Delhi, Alauddin Khalji, in 1296 CE, with part converted into a mosque and further parts destroyed by Ahmed Shah I in the fifteenth century."><img alt="Artistic rendition of the Kirtistambh, a surviving portion of the 10-11th century Rudra Mahalaya Temple. The temple was partly destroyed by the Sultan of Delhi, Alauddin Khalji, in 1296 CE, with part converted into a mosque and further parts destroyed by Ahmed Shah I in the fifteenth century." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Elevation_of_Kirtistambh_Rudramahalaya_Sidhpur_Gujarat_India.jpg/196px-Elevation_of_Kirtistambh_Rudramahalaya_Sidhpur_Gujarat_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Elevation_of_Kirtistambh_Rudramahalaya_Sidhpur_Gujarat_India.jpg/294px-Elevation_of_Kirtistambh_Rudramahalaya_Sidhpur_Gujarat_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Elevation_of_Kirtistambh_Rudramahalaya_Sidhpur_Gujarat_India.jpg/392px-Elevation_of_Kirtistambh_Rudramahalaya_Sidhpur_Gujarat_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="409" data-file-height="657" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Artistic rendition of the Kirtistambh, a surviving portion of the 10-11th century <a href="/wiki/Rudra_Mahalaya_Temple" title="Rudra Mahalaya Temple">Rudra Mahalaya Temple</a>. The temple was partly destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Sultan of Delhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Khalji" title="Alauddin Khalji">Alauddin Khalji</a>, in 1296 CE, with part converted into a mosque and further parts destroyed by <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Shah_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed Shah I">Ahmed Shah I</a> in the fifteenth century.</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 374.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Exteriors_Carvings_of_Shantaleshwara_Shrine_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Exterior wall reliefs at Hoysaleswara Temple. The temple was twice sacked and plundered by the Delhi Sultanate in the early 14th century, and abandoned in the mid 14th century.[139]"><img alt="Exterior wall reliefs at Hoysaleswara Temple. The temple was twice sacked and plundered by the Delhi Sultanate in the early 14th century, and abandoned in the mid 14th century.[139]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Exteriors_Carvings_of_Shantaleshwara_Shrine_02.jpg/562px-Exteriors_Carvings_of_Shantaleshwara_Shrine_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="375" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Exteriors_Carvings_of_Shantaleshwara_Shrine_02.jpg/844px-Exteriors_Carvings_of_Shantaleshwara_Shrine_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Exteriors_Carvings_of_Shantaleshwara_Shrine_02.jpg/1124px-Exteriors_Carvings_of_Shantaleshwara_Shrine_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1148" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Exterior wall reliefs at <a href="/wiki/Hoysaleswara_Temple" title="Hoysaleswara Temple">Hoysaleswara Temple</a>. The temple was twice sacked and plundered by the Delhi Sultanate in the early 14th century, and abandoned in the mid 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradnock2000p959_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradnock2000p959-139">[139]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 315.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahadev_Temple_at_Tambdi_Surla.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The 12th-century Mahadev Temple is the only Kadamba-period temple building to survive the Goa Inquisition."><img alt="The 12th-century Mahadev Temple is the only Kadamba-period temple building to survive the Goa Inquisition." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Mahadev_Temple_at_Tambdi_Surla.jpg/473px-Mahadev_Temple_at_Tambdi_Surla.jpg" decoding="async" width="316" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Mahadev_Temple_at_Tambdi_Surla.jpg/710px-Mahadev_Temple_at_Tambdi_Surla.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Mahadev_Temple_at_Tambdi_Surla.jpg/945px-Mahadev_Temple_at_Tambdi_Surla.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="864" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Mahadev_Temple,_Tambdi_Surla" title="Mahadev Temple, Tambdi Surla">Mahadev Temple</a> is the only <a href="/wiki/Kadambas_of_Goa" title="Kadambas of Goa">Kadamba</a>-period temple building to survive the <a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a>.</div>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Customs_and_etiquette">Customs and etiquette</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE,_PURI,_ORISSA,_INDIA,_ASIA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg/220px-PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg/330px-PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg/440px-PURI_JAGANATHA_TEMPLE%2C_PURI%2C_ORISSA%2C_INDIA%2C_ASIA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jagannath_Temple,_Puri" title="Jagannath Temple, Puri">Jagannath Temple</a> at <a href="/wiki/Puri" title="Puri">Puri</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Char_Dham" title="Char Dham">Char Dham</a>: the four main spiritual centers of Hinduism.</figcaption></figure>
<p>In Hinduism, temples are considered sacred spaces where the divine is believed to manifest, and devotees visit these places to experience the presence and blessings of the deity. The customs and etiquette for visiting temples varies across India. Devotees in major temples may bring in symbolic offerings for the <a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">puja</a>. This includes fruits, flowers, sweets and other symbols of the bounty of the natural world. Temples in India are usually surrounded with small shops selling these offerings.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></sup>
</p><p>When inside the temple, devotees keep both hands folded (<a href="/wiki/Namaste" title="Namaste">namaste</a> <a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">mudra</a>). The inner sanctuary, where the <a href="/wiki/Murtis" class="mw-redirect" title="Murtis">murtis</a> reside, is known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Garbhagriha" title="Garbhagriha">garbhagriha</a></i>. It symbolizes the birthplace of the universe, the meeting place of the gods and humankind, and the threshold between the transcendental and the phenomenal worlds.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></sup> It is in this inner shrine that devotees seek <i><a href="/wiki/Darshan_(Indian_religions)" title="Darshan (Indian religions)">darśana</a></i> (seeing and being seen by the auspicious sight of the divine)<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></sup> and offer prayers. Devotees may or may not be able to personally present their offerings at the feet of the deity. In most large Indian temples, only the <a href="/wiki/Pujari" title="Pujari">pujaris</a> (priest) are allowed to enter the main sanctum.<sup id="cite_ref-Narayanan_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Narayanan-143">[143]</a></sup>
</p><p>Temple management staff typically announce the hours of operation, including timings for special <a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">pujas</a>. These timings and nature of special puja vary from temple to temple. Additionally, there may be specially allotted times for devotees to perform <a href="/wiki/Pradakshina" class="mw-redirect" title="Pradakshina">pradakshina</a> (circumambulations) around the temple.<sup id="cite_ref-Narayanan_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Narayanan-143">[143]</a></sup>
</p><p>Visitors and worshipers to large Hindu temples may be required to deposit their shoes and other footwear before entering. Where this is expected, the temples provide an area and help staff to store footwear. Dress codes vary. It is customary in temples in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, for men to remove shirts and to cover pants and shorts with a traditional cloth known as a <i><a href="/wiki/Mundu" title="Mundu">Mundu</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></sup> In Java and Bali (Indonesia), before one enters the most sacred parts of a Hindu temple, shirts are required as well as a <a href="/wiki/Sarong" title="Sarong">sarong</a> around one's waist.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></sup> At many other locations, this formality is unnecessary.
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Regional_variations_in_Hindu_temples">Regional variations in Hindu temples</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Nagara_Architecture_of_North_Indian_temples">Nagara Architecture of North Indian temples</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:440px;max-width:440px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:218px;max-width:218px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kedarnath_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Kedarnath_Temple.jpg/216px-Kedarnath_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="216" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Kedarnath_Temple.jpg/324px-Kedarnath_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Kedarnath_Temple.jpg/432px-Kedarnath_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Kedarnath_Temple" title="Kedarnath Temple">Kedarnath Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:218px;max-width:218px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shiv_Temple_-_Assam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Shiv_Temple_-_Assam.jpg/216px-Shiv_Temple_-_Assam.jpg" decoding="async" width="216" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Shiv_Temple_-_Assam.jpg/324px-Shiv_Temple_-_Assam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Shiv_Temple_-_Assam.jpg/432px-Shiv_Temple_-_Assam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Sivasagar_Sivadol" title="Sivasagar Sivadol">Sivasagar Sivadol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a></div></div></div></div></div>
<p>North Indian temples are referred to as Nagara style of temple architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-adamhardy_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adamhardy-146">[146]</a></sup> They have <i>sanctum sanctorum</i> where the deity is present, open on one side from where the devotee obtains <i><a href="/wiki/Dar%C5%9Bana" class="mw-redirect" title="Darśana">darśana</a></i>. There may or may not be many more surrounding corridors, halls, etc. However, there will be space for devotees to go around the temple in clockwise fashion <a href="/wiki/Circumambulation" title="Circumambulation">circumambulation</a>. In North Indian temples, the tallest towers are built over the <i>sanctum sanctorum</i> in which the deity is installed.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></sup>
</p><p>The north India Nagara style of temple designs often deploy <a href="/wiki/Fractal" title="Fractal">fractal</a>-theme, where smaller parts of the temple are themselves images or geometric re-arrangement of the large temple, a concept that later inspired French and Russian architecture such as the <a href="/wiki/Matryoshka_doll" title="Matryoshka doll">matryoshka</a> principle. One difference is the scope and cardinality, where Hindu temple structures deploy this principle in every dimension with garbhgriya as the primary locus, and each pada as well as zones serving as additional centers of <a href="/wiki/Focus_(geometry)" title="Focus (geometry)">loci</a>. This makes a Nagara Hindu temple architecture symbolically a perennial expression of movement and time, of centrifugal growth fused with the idea of unity in everything.<sup id="cite_ref-adamhardy_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adamhardy-146">[146]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Temples_in_West_Bengal">Temples in West Bengal</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dakshineswar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Dakshineswar.jpg/220px-Dakshineswar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Dakshineswar.jpg/330px-Dakshineswar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Dakshineswar.jpg/440px-Dakshineswar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dakshineswar_Kali_Temple" title="Dakshineswar Kali Temple">Dakshineswar Kali Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_temple_architecture#West_Bengal_terra_cotta_temple_architecture" title="Bengal temple architecture">Bengali terra cotta temple architecture</a> is found. Due to lack of suitable stone in the alluvial soil locally available, the temple makers had to resort to other materials instead of stone. This gave rise to using <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> as a medium for temple construction. Terracotta exteriors with rich carvings are a unique feature of Bengali temples. The town of <a href="/wiki/Bishnupur,_Bankura" title="Bishnupur, Bankura">Bishnupur</a> in West Bengal is renowned for this type of architecture. There is also a popular style of building known as Naba-ratna (nine-towered) or Pancha-ratna (five-towered). An example of Navaratna style is the <a href="/wiki/Dakshineswar_Kali_Temple" title="Dakshineswar Kali Temple">Dakshineswar Kali Temple</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Temples_in_Odisha">Temples in Odisha</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p><a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a> temple architecture is known as <a href="/wiki/Kalinga_architecture" title="Kalinga architecture">Kalinga architecture</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></sup> classifies the spire into three parts, the <i>Bāḍa</i> (lower limb), the <i>Ganḍi</i> (body) and the <i>Cuḷa/Mastaka</i> (head). Each part is decorated in a different manner. Kalinga architecture is a style which flourished in Kalinga, the name for kingdom that included ancient Odisha. It includes three styles: <i>Rekha Deula</i>, <i>Pidha Deula</i> and <i>Khakhara Deula</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></sup> The former two are associated with <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> temples while the third is mainly associated with <a href="/wiki/Chamunda" title="Chamunda">Chamunda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a> temples. The <i>Rekha Deula</i> and <i>Khakhara Deula</i> houses the <i><a href="/wiki/Sanctum_sanctorum" title="Sanctum sanctorum">sanctum sanctorum</a></i> while the <i>Pidha Deula</i> style includes space for outer dancing and offering halls.
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<figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bird_view_of_Jagannath_Temple,_Puri.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bird_view_of_Jagannath_Temple%2C_Puri.jpg/790px-Bird_view_of_Jagannath_Temple%2C_Puri.jpg" decoding="async" width="790" height="434" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bird_view_of_Jagannath_Temple%2C_Puri.jpg/1185px-Bird_view_of_Jagannath_Temple%2C_Puri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Bird_view_of_Jagannath_Temple%2C_Puri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="659" /></a><figcaption>Bird's Eye view of one of the four <a href="/wiki/Char_Dham" title="Char Dham">Char Dhams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jagannath_Temple,_Puri" title="Jagannath Temple, Puri">The Jagannath Temple</a> at <a href="/wiki/Puri" title="Puri">Puri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a> built using the <a href="/wiki/Kalinga_architecture" title="Kalinga architecture">Kalinga Architecture</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:165px;max-width:165px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:122px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jagannath_Temple,_Emami_Paper_Mill_Complex,_Balasore.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Jagannath_Temple%2C_Emami_Paper_Mill_Complex%2C_Balasore.jpg/163px-Jagannath_Temple%2C_Emami_Paper_Mill_Complex%2C_Balasore.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Jagannath_Temple%2C_Emami_Paper_Mill_Complex%2C_Balasore.jpg/245px-Jagannath_Temple%2C_Emami_Paper_Mill_Complex%2C_Balasore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Jagannath_Temple%2C_Emami_Paper_Mill_Complex%2C_Balasore.jpg/326px-Jagannath_Temple%2C_Emami_Paper_Mill_Complex%2C_Balasore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:165px;max-width:165px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:107px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_sun_temple_at_konark.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/The_sun_temple_at_konark.jpg/163px-The_sun_temple_at_konark.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/The_sun_temple_at_konark.jpg/245px-The_sun_temple_at_konark.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/The_sun_temple_at_konark.jpg/326px-The_sun_temple_at_konark.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1928" data-file-height="1277" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:165px;max-width:165px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:111px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Raja_Rani_Temple_-_A_different_angle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Raja_Rani_Temple_-_A_different_angle.jpg/163px-Raja_Rani_Temple_-_A_different_angle.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Raja_Rani_Temple_-_A_different_angle.jpg/245px-Raja_Rani_Temple_-_A_different_angle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Raja_Rani_Temple_-_A_different_angle.jpg/326px-Raja_Rani_Temple_-_A_different_angle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4060" data-file-height="2781" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Jagannath Temple in the <a href="/wiki/Balasore_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Balasore District">Balasore District</a>, the magnificent <a href="/wiki/Konark_Sun_Temple" title="Konark Sun Temple">Konark Sun Temple</a> near <a href="/wiki/Puri" title="Puri">Puri</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rajarani_Temple" title="Rajarani Temple">Rajarani Temple</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bhubaneswar" title="Bhubaneswar">Bhubaneswar</a></div></div></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Temples_of_Goa_and_Konkani">Temples of Goa and Konkani</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saptakoteshwar_Temple.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Saptakoteshwar_Temple.JPG/200px-Saptakoteshwar_Temple.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Saptakoteshwar_Temple.JPG/300px-Saptakoteshwar_Temple.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Saptakoteshwar_Temple.JPG/400px-Saptakoteshwar_Temple.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1936" /></a><figcaption>Saptakoteshwar Temple, Goa.</figcaption></figure>
<p>The temple architecture of Goa is quite unique. As Portuguese colonial hegemony increased, Goan Hindu temples became the rallying point to local resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></sup> Many these temples are not more than 500 years old, and are a unique blend of original Goan temple architecture, Dravidian, Nagar and <a href="/wiki/Hemadpanthi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemadpanthi">Hemadpanthi</a> temple styles with some <a href="/wiki/British_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="British architecture">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_architecture" title="Portuguese architecture">Portuguese architectural</a> influences. Goan temples were built using sedimentary rocks, wood, limestone and clay tiles, and copper sheets were used for the roofs. These temples were decorated with mural art called as <i><a href="/wiki/Kaavi_art" title="Kaavi art">Kavi kala</a></i> or <i>ocher art</i>. The interiors have murals and wood carvings depicting scenes from the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Hindu mythology</a>.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="South_Indian_and_Sri_Lankan_temples">South Indian and Sri Lankan temples</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:848px;max-width:848px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:422px;max-width:422px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_temple_de_Srirangam_(Tiruchirapalli,_Inde)_(13903661293).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Le_temple_de_Srirangam_%28Tiruchirapalli%2C_Inde%29_%2813903661293%29.jpg/420px-Le_temple_de_Srirangam_%28Tiruchirapalli%2C_Inde%29_%2813903661293%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="420" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Le_temple_de_Srirangam_%28Tiruchirapalli%2C_Inde%29_%2813903661293%29.jpg/630px-Le_temple_de_Srirangam_%28Tiruchirapalli%2C_Inde%29_%2813903661293%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Le_temple_de_Srirangam_%28Tiruchirapalli%2C_Inde%29_%2813903661293%29.jpg/840px-Le_temple_de_Srirangam_%28Tiruchirapalli%2C_Inde%29_%2813903661293%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1673" data-file-height="1109" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A row of gopurams (towers) in the <a href="/wiki/Ranganathaswamy_Temple,_Srirangam" title="Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam">Srirangam Ranganathaswmy temple</a>, a typical South Indian <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavate</a> temple complex in <a href="/wiki/Srirangam" title="Srirangam">Srirangam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:422px;max-width:422px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spiritual_16.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Spiritual_16.jpg/420px-Spiritual_16.jpg" decoding="async" width="420" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Spiritual_16.jpg/630px-Spiritual_16.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Spiritual_16.jpg/840px-Spiritual_16.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3072" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Koneswaram_Temple" title="Koneswaram Temple">Koneswaram Temple</a>, a Tamil <a href="/wiki/Saivaite" class="mw-redirect" title="Saivaite">Saivate temple</a> in <a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Tirukonamalai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>.</div></div></div></div></div>
<p>South Indian temples have a large <a href="/wiki/Gopuram" title="Gopuram">gopuram</a>, a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of the temple. This forms a prominent feature of <a href="/wiki/Koil" title="Koil">Koils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Hindu temples</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_architecture" title="Dravidian architecture">Dravidian style</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ching2_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ching2-152">[152]</a></sup> They are topped by the <i>kalasam</i>, a bulbous stone <a href="/wiki/Finial" title="Finial">finial</a>. They function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.<sup id="cite_ref-ching_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ching-153">[153]</a></sup> The gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil people">Tamil</a> kings <a href="/wiki/Pallavas" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallavas">Pallavas</a>; and by the twelfth century, under the <a href="/wiki/Pandya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandya">Pandya</a> rulers, these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the gopuram's colossal size.<sup id="cite_ref-mitchell_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mitchell-154">[154]</a></sup> It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one gopuram.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></sup> They also appear in architecture outside India, especially <a href="/wiki/Khmer_architecture" title="Khmer architecture">Khmer architecture</a>, as at <a href="/wiki/Angkor_Wat" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a>. A koil may have multiple gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in tiers around the main shrine. The temple's walls are typically square with the outer most wall having gopuras. The <a href="/wiki/Sanctum_sanctorum" title="Sanctum sanctorum">sanctum sanctorum</a> and its towering roof (the central deity's shrine) are also called the <i><a href="/wiki/Vimana_(shrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vimana (shrine)">vimanam</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a></sup> The inner sanctum has restricted access with only priests allowed beyond a certain point.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Temples_in_Kerala">Temples in Kerala</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Temples in Kerala have a different architectural style (keeping the same essence of Vastu), especially due to climatic differences Kerala have with other parts of India with larger rainfall. The temple roof is mostly tiled and is sloped and the walls are often square, the innermost shrine being entirely enclosed in another four walls to which only the pujari (priest) enters. The walls are decorated with either mural paintings or rock sculptures which many times are emphasised on Dwarapalakas.
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<figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TVM_Padmanabhaswamy_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/TVM_Padmanabhaswamy_Temple.jpg/790px-TVM_Padmanabhaswamy_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="790" height="526" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/TVM_Padmanabhaswamy_Temple.jpg/1185px-TVM_Padmanabhaswamy_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/TVM_Padmanabhaswamy_Temple.jpg/1580px-TVM_Padmanabhaswamy_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5198" data-file-height="3462" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Padmanabhaswamy_Temple" title="Padmanabhaswamy Temple">Padmanabhaswamy Temple</a> in <a href="/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram" title="Thiruvananthapuram">Thiruvananthapuram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Temples_in_Tamil_Nadu">Temples in Tamil Nadu</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The <a href="/wiki/Ranganathaswamy_Temple,_Srirangam" title="Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam">Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple</a> is the <b>worlds largest functioning Hindu temple</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></sup> The temple is present in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, the temple was first built by the Chola ruler, <b>Dharmavarma</b>. The Kaveri river flood destroyed the temple and <i>vimanam</i> submerged in the island, and later, the <a href="/wiki/Early_Cholas" title="Early Cholas">early Cholas</a> King <a href="/wiki/Killivalavan" title="Killivalavan">Killivalavan</a> rebuilt the temple complex as is present today. Beyond the ancient textual history, archaeological evidence such as inscriptions refer to this temple, and these stone inscriptions are from late 100 BCE to 100 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESircar197964_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESircar197964-158">[158]</a></sup> Hence, making it one of the <b>Oldest surviving active temple complexes in South India</b>. Later, the temple constructions reached its peak during rule of is construction reached its peak during rule of <a href="/wiki/Pallavas" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallavas">Pallavas</a>. They built various temples around <a href="/wiki/Kancheepuram" class="mw-redirect" title="Kancheepuram">Kancheepuram</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Narasimhavarman_II" title="Narasimhavarman II">Narasimhavarman II</a> built the <a href="/wiki/Thirukadalmallai" title="Thirukadalmallai">Thirukadalmallai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shore_Temple" title="Shore Temple">Shore Temple</a> in Mamallapuram, a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pandyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyas">Pandyas</a> rule created temples such as the <a href="/wiki/Koodal_Azhagar_temple" title="Koodal Azhagar temple">Koodal Azhagar temple</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meenakshi_Amman_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Meenakshi Amman Temple">Meenakshi Amman Temple</a> at Madurai and <a href="/wiki/Srivilliputhur_Andal_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Srivilliputhur Andal Temple">Srivilliputhur Andal Temple</a> at Srivilliputhur.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESastri197018–182_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESastri197018–182-159">[159]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Cholas</a> were prolific temple builders right from the times of the first medieval king <a href="/wiki/Vijayalaya_Chola" title="Vijayalaya Chola">Vijayalaya Chola</a>. The Chola temples include <a href="/wiki/Ranganathaswamy_Temple,_Srirangam" title="Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam">Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple,_Thanjavur" class="mw-redirect" title="Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur">Brihadeeshwarar temple at Tanjore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple,_Gangaikonda_Cholapuram" title="Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram">Brihadeeshwarar temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Airavatesvara_Temple" title="Airavatesvara Temple">Airavatesvarar Temple of Darasuram</a> which are among the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites" class="mw-redirect" title="World Heritage Sites">World Heritage Sites</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Madurai_Nayak_dynasty" title="Madurai Nayak dynasty">Nayaks of Madurai</a> reconstructed some of the well-known temples in Tamil Nadu such as the <a href="/wiki/Meenakshi_Temple" title="Meenakshi Temple">Meenakshi Temple</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-susanlchap4_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-susanlchap4-10">[10]</a></sup> One of the southernmost famous temples in South India, the Ramanathaswamy Temple was built in the 17th century on the island of Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Sri_Rangam_temple_near_Tiruchirapalli_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Aerial_view_of_Sri_Rangam_temple_near_Tiruchirapalli_1.jpg/750px-Aerial_view_of_Sri_Rangam_temple_near_Tiruchirapalli_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="750" height="500" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Aerial_view_of_Sri_Rangam_temple_near_Tiruchirapalli_1.jpg/1125px-Aerial_view_of_Sri_Rangam_temple_near_Tiruchirapalli_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Aerial_view_of_Sri_Rangam_temple_near_Tiruchirapalli_1.jpg/1500px-Aerial_view_of_Sri_Rangam_temple_near_Tiruchirapalli_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>An aerial view of the <a href="/wiki/Ranganathaswamy_Temple,_Srirangam" title="Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam">Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Srirangam" title="Srirangam">Srirangam</a>, often known as <i>Bhuloka Vaikuntham</i> and First among the 108 <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavate</a> <a href="/wiki/Divya_Desam" title="Divya Desam">Divya Desams</a></figcaption></figure>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Temples_in_Nepal">Temples in Nepal</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The <a href="/wiki/Pashupatinath_Temple" title="Pashupatinath Temple">Pashupatinath temple</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kathmandu" title="Kathmandu">Kathmandu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> is an important temple in Hinduism.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a></sup> It is built in a pagoda style and is surrounded by hundreds of temples and buildings built by kings. The temples top is made from pure gold.
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<figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pashupati_dec_20_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Pashupati_dec_20_2009.jpg/800px-Pashupati_dec_20_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="800" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Pashupati_dec_20_2009.jpg/1200px-Pashupati_dec_20_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Pashupati_dec_20_2009.jpg/1600px-Pashupati_dec_20_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3192" data-file-height="883" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Pashupatinath_Temple" title="Pashupatinath Temple">Pashupatinath Temple</a> from the other bank of Bagmati river, <a href="/wiki/Kathmandu" title="Kathmandu">Kathmandu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>.</div></figcaption></figure>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Khmer_Temples">Khmer Temples</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bantay_srei.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Bantay_srei.jpg/220px-Bantay_srei.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Bantay_srei.jpg/330px-Bantay_srei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Bantay_srei.jpg/440px-Bantay_srei.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="409" /></a><figcaption>Art relief at the Hindu temple <a href="/wiki/Banteay_Srei" title="Banteay Srei">Banteay Srei</a> in Cambodia.</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/wiki/Angkor_Wat" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a> was built as a Hindu temple by King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yasodharapura (Khmer, present-day <a href="/wiki/Angkor" title="Angkor">Angkor</a>), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. The Spire in Khmer Hindu temple is called Giri (mountain) and symbolizes the residence of gods just like Meru does in Bali Hindu mythology and Ku (Guha) does in Burmese Hindu mythology.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></sup>
</p><p>Angkor Wat is just one of numerous Hindu temples in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, most of them in ruins. Hundreds of Hindu temples are scattered from Siem Reap to Sambor Prei Kuk in central Cambodian region.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Temples_in_Indonesia">Temples in Indonesia</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi of Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_temples_in_Indonesia" title="List of Hindu temples in Indonesia">List of Hindu temples in Indonesia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Balinese_temple" title="Balinese temple">Balinese temple</a></div>
<figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Overview_of_Pura_Besakih_1557.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Overview_of_Pura_Besakih_1557.jpg/300px-Overview_of_Pura_Besakih_1557.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Overview_of_Pura_Besakih_1557.jpg/450px-Overview_of_Pura_Besakih_1557.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Overview_of_Pura_Besakih_1557.jpg/600px-Overview_of_Pura_Besakih_1557.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2792" data-file-height="1255" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Besakih" class="mw-redirect" title="Besakih">Besakih</a> temple complex, largest Hindu temple in <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Ancient Hindu temples in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> are called <i><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></i> (read: <i>chandi</i>). Prior to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Indonesia" title="Islam in Indonesia">Islam</a>, between the 5th to 15th century Dharmic faiths (Hinduism and Buddhism) were the majority in Indonesian archipelago, especially in <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>. As the result numerous Hindu temples, locally known as <i><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">candi</a></i>, constructed and dominated the landscape of Java. According to local beliefs, Java valley had thousands of Hindu temples which co-existed with Buddhist temples, most of which were buried in <a href="/wiki/Mount_Merapi#Geological_history" title="Mount Merapi">massive eruption of Mount Merapi</a> in 1006 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pura_Bratan_Bali.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Pura_Bratan_Bali.jpg/250px-Pura_Bratan_Bali.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Pura_Bratan_Bali.jpg/375px-Pura_Bratan_Bali.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Pura_Bratan_Bali.jpg/500px-Pura_Bratan_Bali.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pura_Ulun_Danu_Bratan" title="Pura Ulun Danu Bratan">Pura Ulun Danu Bratan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Between 1,100 and 1,500 additional Hindu temples were built, but abandoned by Hindus and Buddhists as Islam spread in Java circa 15th to 16th century.
In last 200 years, some of these have been rediscovered mostly by farmers while preparing their lands for crops. Most of these ancient temples were rediscovered and reconstructed between 19th to 20th century, and treated as the important <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological findings</a> and also as <a href="/wiki/Tourist_attraction" title="Tourist attraction">tourist attraction</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Hindu_Temple_Tour_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hindu_Temple_Tour-166">[166]</a></sup> but not as the house of worship. Hindu temples of ancient <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> bear resemblances with temples of <a href="/wiki/South_Indian" class="mw-redirect" title="South Indian">South Indian</a> style. The largest of these is the 9th century Javanese Hindu temple, <a href="/wiki/Prambanan" title="Prambanan">Prambanan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta" title="Yogyakarta">Yogyakarta</a>, now a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> world heritage site. It was designed as three concentric squares and has 224 temples. The inner square contains 16 temples dedicated to major Hindu deities, of which <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> temple is the largest.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a></sup> The temple has extensive wall reliefs and carvings illustrating the stories from the Hindu epic <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Hindu</a> temple is known as "<a href="/wiki/Pura_(Balinese_temple)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pura (Balinese temple)">Pura</a>", which is designed as an open-air worship place in a walled compound. The compound walls have a series of intricately decorated gates without doors for the devotee to enter. The design, plan and layout of the holy pura follows a square layout.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a></sup>
</p><p>The majority of Hindu temples in Java were dedicated to Shiva, who Javanese Hindus considered as the God who commands the energy to destroy, recombine and recreate the cycle of life. Small temples were often dedicated to Shiva and his family (wife Durga, son Ganesha). Larger temple complexes include temples for Vishnu and Brahma, but the most majestic, sophisticated and central temple was dedicated to Shiva. The 732 CE Canggal inscription found in Southern Central Java, written in Indonesian Sanskrit script, eulogizes Shiva, calling him God par-excellence.
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<figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yogyakarta_Indonesia_Prambanan-temple-complex-02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Yogyakarta_Indonesia_Prambanan-temple-complex-02.jpg/800px-Yogyakarta_Indonesia_Prambanan-temple-complex-02.jpg" decoding="async" width="800" height="373" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Yogyakarta_Indonesia_Prambanan-temple-complex-02.jpg/1200px-Yogyakarta_Indonesia_Prambanan-temple-complex-02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Yogyakarta_Indonesia_Prambanan-temple-complex-02.jpg/1600px-Yogyakarta_Indonesia_Prambanan-temple-complex-02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5703" data-file-height="2658" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The <a href="/wiki/Prambanan" title="Prambanan">Prambanan</a> temple complex in <a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta" title="Yogyakarta">Yogyakarta</a>, the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia and the second largest Hindu temple in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>.</div></figcaption></figure>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Temples_in_Vietnam">Temples in Vietnam</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:My_Son.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/My_Son.jpg/200px-My_Son.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/My_Son.jpg/300px-My_Son.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/My_Son.jpg/400px-My_Son.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1628" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption>Partially ruined <a href="/wiki/M%E1%BB%B9_S%C6%A1n" title="Mỹ Sơn">Mỹ Sơn</a> Hindu temple complex, Vietnam.</figcaption></figure>
<p>There are a number of Hindu temple clusters built by the <a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a> Kingdoms along the coast of <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, with some on UNESCO world heritage site list.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></sup> Examples include <a href="/wiki/M%E1%BB%B9_S%C6%A1n" title="Mỹ Sơn">Mỹ Sơn</a> – a cluster of 70 temples with earliest dated to be from the 4th century CE and dedicated to Siva, while others are dedicated to Hindu deities Krishna, Vishnu and others. These temples, internally and with respect to each other, are also built on the Hindu perfect square grid concept. Other sites in Vietnam with Hindu temples include Phan Rang with the Cham temple <a href="/wiki/Po_Klong_Garai" title="Po Klong Garai">Po Klong Garai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Temples_in_Thailand">Temples in Thailand</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wat_Khaek_Silom_Sri_Mariamman_Hindu_temple_Bangkok.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Wat_Khaek_Silom_Sri_Mariamman_Hindu_temple_Bangkok.jpg/200px-Wat_Khaek_Silom_Sri_Mariamman_Hindu_temple_Bangkok.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Wat_Khaek_Silom_Sri_Mariamman_Hindu_temple_Bangkok.jpg/300px-Wat_Khaek_Silom_Sri_Mariamman_Hindu_temple_Bangkok.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Wat_Khaek_Silom_Sri_Mariamman_Hindu_temple_Bangkok.jpg/400px-Wat_Khaek_Silom_Sri_Mariamman_Hindu_temple_Bangkok.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5568" data-file-height="3712" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sri_Mariamman_Temple,_Bangkok" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Mariamman Temple, Bangkok">Sri Mariamman Temple, Bangkok</a></figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> has many notable Hindu temples including: the <a href="/wiki/Mariamman_Temple,_Bangkok" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariamman Temple, Bangkok">Sri Mariammam temple</a> in Bangkok, the <a href="/wiki/Devasathan" title="Devasathan">Devasathan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Erawan_Shrine" title="Erawan Shrine">Erawan Shrine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prasat_Muang_Tam" title="Prasat Muang Tam">Prasat Muang Tam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sdok_Kok_Thom" title="Sdok Kok Thom">Sdok Kok Thom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phanom_Rung_Historical_Park" title="Phanom Rung Historical Park">Phanom Rung</a>. Most of the newer Hindu temples are of South Indian origin and were built by Tamil migrant communities. However, Thailand has many historic indigenous Hindu temples such as <a href="/wiki/Phanom_Rung_Historical_Park" title="Phanom Rung Historical Park">Phanom Rung</a>. Although most indigenous Hindu temples are ruins, a few such as <a href="/wiki/Devasathan" title="Devasathan">Devasathan</a> in Bangkok are actively used.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Temples_outside_Asia">Temples outside Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Many members of the diaspora from the Indian subcontinent have established Hindu temples outside India as a means of preserving and celebrating cultural and spiritual heritage abroad. Describing the hundreds of temples that can be found throughout the United States, scholar Gail M. Harley observes, "The temples serve as central locations where Hindus can come together to worship during holy festivals and socialize with other Hindus. Temples in America reflect the colorful kaleidoscopic aspects contained in Hinduism while unifying people who are disbursed throughout the American landscape."<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a></sup> Numerous temples in North America and Europe have gained particular prominence and acclaim, many of which were built by the <a href="/wiki/Bochasanwasi_Akshar_Purushottam_Swaminarayan_Sanstha" title="Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha">Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha</a>. The Ganesh temple of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Temple_Society_of_North_America" title="Hindu Temple Society of North America">Hindu Temple Society of North America</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Flushing,_Queens" title="Flushing, Queens">Flushing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Queens" title="Queens">Queens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indians_in_the_New_York_City_metropolitan_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Indians in the New York City metropolitan region">New York City</a>, is the oldest Hindu temple in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a>, and its <a href="/wiki/Cafeteria" title="Cafeteria">canteen</a> feeds 4,000 people a week, with as many as 10,000 during the <a href="/wiki/Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali</a> (Deepavali) festival.<sup id="cite_ref-FlushingHinduTempleCanteen_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FlushingHinduTempleCanteen-174">[174]</a></sup>
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<h4><span id="New_York.2FNew_Jersey"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="New_York/New_Jersey">New York/New Jersey</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 106.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hindu_Temple_Society_of_North_America_(Flushing,_Queens_-_exterior).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Ganesh temple of Hindu Temple Society of North America is the oldest Hindu temple in the Western hemisphere, in Flushing, Queens, New York City."><img alt="The Ganesh temple of Hindu Temple Society of North America is the oldest Hindu temple in the Western hemisphere, in Flushing, Queens, New York City." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Hindu_Temple_Society_of_North_America_%28Flushing%2C_Queens_-_exterior%29.jpg/160px-Hindu_Temple_Society_of_North_America_%28Flushing%2C_Queens_-_exterior%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="107" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Hindu_Temple_Society_of_North_America_%28Flushing%2C_Queens_-_exterior%29.jpg/240px-Hindu_Temple_Society_of_North_America_%28Flushing%2C_Queens_-_exterior%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Hindu_Temple_Society_of_North_America_%28Flushing%2C_Queens_-_exterior%29.jpg/320px-Hindu_Temple_Society_of_North_America_%28Flushing%2C_Queens_-_exterior%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="4752" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Ganesh temple of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Temple_Society_of_North_America" title="Hindu Temple Society of North America">Hindu Temple Society of North America</a> is the oldest Hindu temple in the <a href="/wiki/Western_hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Western hemisphere">Western hemisphere</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Flushing,_Queens" title="Flushing, Queens">Flushing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Queens" title="Queens">Queens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indians_in_the_New_York_City_metropolitan_area" title="Indians in the New York City metropolitan area">New York City</a>.</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 213.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:BAPS_Robbinsville_Mandir_-_mandir_interior.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Swaminarayan Akshardham in Robbinsville, New Jersey, U.S., is the world’s second-largest Hindu temple and the largest and most-visited Hindu temple outside Asia.[175]"><img alt="Swaminarayan Akshardham in Robbinsville, New Jersey, U.S., is the world’s second-largest Hindu temple and the largest and most-visited Hindu temple outside Asia.[175]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/BAPS_Robbinsville_Mandir_-_mandir_interior.jpg/320px-BAPS_Robbinsville_Mandir_-_mandir_interior.jpg" decoding="async" width="214" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/BAPS_Robbinsville_Mandir_-_mandir_interior.jpg/480px-BAPS_Robbinsville_Mandir_-_mandir_interior.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/BAPS_Robbinsville_Mandir_-_mandir_interior.jpg/640px-BAPS_Robbinsville_Mandir_-_mandir_interior.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Akshardham_(New_Jersey)" class="mw-redirect" title="Akshardham (New Jersey)">Swaminarayan Akshardham</a> in <a href="/wiki/Robbinsville,_New_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="Robbinsville, New Jersey">Robbinsville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indians_in_the_New_York_City_metropolitan_area" title="Indians in the New York City metropolitan area">New Jersey</a>, U.S., is <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_Hindu_temples" title="List of largest Hindu temples">the world’s second-largest Hindu temple</a> and the largest and most-visited Hindu temple outside <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-modern_new_jersey_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-modern_new_jersey-175">[175]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 241.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bridge_water_Temple,_New_Jersey.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sri Venkateswara Temple in Bridgewater, New Jersey, in a semi-rural setting, serves as the flagship for the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society of USA."><img alt="Sri Venkateswara Temple in Bridgewater, New Jersey, in a semi-rural setting, serves as the flagship for the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society of USA." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Bridge_water_Temple%2C_New_Jersey.jpeg/362px-Bridge_water_Temple%2C_New_Jersey.jpeg" decoding="async" width="242" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Bridge_water_Temple%2C_New_Jersey.jpeg/543px-Bridge_water_Temple%2C_New_Jersey.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Bridge_water_Temple%2C_New_Jersey.jpeg/723px-Bridge_water_Temple%2C_New_Jersey.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4277" data-file-height="2839" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sri_Venkateswara_Temple_(New_Jersey)" title="Sri Venkateswara Temple (New Jersey)">Sri Venkateswara Temple</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bridgewater,_New_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridgewater, New Jersey">Bridgewater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indians_in_the_New_York_City_metropolitan_area" title="Indians in the New York City metropolitan area">New Jersey</a>, in a semi-rural setting, serves as the flagship for the Hindu Temple and Cultural Society of USA.</div>
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<h4><span id="Outside_New_York.2FNew_Jersey"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Outside_New_York/New_Jersey">Outside New York/New Jersey</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 257.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sri_Siva_Vishnu_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sri Siva Vishnu Temple in Maryland, U.S., welcomes both Vaishnavite and Shaivite worshippers."><img alt="Sri Siva Vishnu Temple in Maryland, U.S., welcomes both Vaishnavite and Shaivite worshippers." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Sri_Siva_Vishnu_Temple.jpg/386px-Sri_Siva_Vishnu_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="258" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Sri_Siva_Vishnu_Temple.jpg/579px-Sri_Siva_Vishnu_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Sri_Siva_Vishnu_Temple.jpg/772px-Sri_Siva_Vishnu_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2581" data-file-height="1605" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sri_Siva_Vishnu_Temple" title="Sri Siva Vishnu Temple">Sri Siva Vishnu Temple</a> in <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, U.S., welcomes both <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivite</a> worshippers.</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hindu_Temple_Victoria_Seychelles_Islands_of_Africa.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hindu temple in Victoria, Seychelles"><img alt="Hindu temple in Victoria, Seychelles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Hindu_Temple_Victoria_Seychelles_Islands_of_Africa.jpg/180px-Hindu_Temple_Victoria_Seychelles_Islands_of_Africa.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Hindu_Temple_Victoria_Seychelles_Islands_of_Africa.jpg/270px-Hindu_Temple_Victoria_Seychelles_Islands_of_Africa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Hindu_Temple_Victoria_Seychelles_Islands_of_Africa.jpg/360px-Hindu_Temple_Victoria_Seychelles_Islands_of_Africa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Hindu temple in <a href="/wiki/Victoria,_Seychelles" title="Victoria, Seychelles">Victoria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 282px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 280px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Clairwood-Shree-Shiva-Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Clairwood Shri Shiva Temple in Durban, South Africa"><img alt="Clairwood Shri Shiva Temple in Durban, South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Clairwood-Shree-Shiva-Temple.jpg/420px-Clairwood-Shree-Shiva-Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Clairwood-Shree-Shiva-Temple.jpg/630px-Clairwood-Shree-Shiva-Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Clairwood-Shree-Shiva-Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_South_Africa" title="Hinduism in South Africa">Clairwood Shri Shiva Temple</a> in <a href="/wiki/Durban,_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Durban, South Africa">Durban</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></div>
</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Temple_management">Temple management</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_India" title="Archaeological Survey of India">Archaeological Survey of India</a> has control of most ancient temples of archaeological importance in India. In India, day-to-day activities of a temple is managed by a temple board <a href="/wiki/Committee" title="Committee">committee</a> that administers its <a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">finances</a>, management, and events. Since independence, the autonomy of individual Hindu religious denominations to manage their own affairs with respect to temples of their own denomination has been severely eroded and the state governments have taken control of major Hindu temples in some countries; however, in others, such as the United States, private temple management autonomy has been preserved.
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology_and_nomenclature">Etymology and nomenclature</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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</h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1219143323">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#000;color:#fff}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#000;color:#fff}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:402px"><div style="position:relative;width:400px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:India_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hindu temple is located in India"><img alt="Hindu temple is located in India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/India_location_map.svg/400px-India_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="431" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/India_location_map.svg/600px-India_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/India_location_map.svg/800px-India_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1615" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:51.114%;left:10.629%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Somnath"><img alt="Somnath" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="font-size:91%;width:6em;left:5px"><div><b>Somnath</b></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:65.926%;left:37.4%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:44.053%;left:27.401%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:46.924%;left:33.286%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:40.062%;left:61.563%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:56.701%;left:20.424%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:86.821%;left:38.437%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Rameshwaram"><img alt="Rameshwaram" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="font-size:91%;width:6em;left:5px"><div><b>Rameshwaram</b></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:46.667%;left:6.51%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:37.505%;left:50.033%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Varanasi"><img alt="Varanasi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="font-size:91%;width:6em;left:5px"><div><b>Varanasi</b></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:60.205%;left:26.719%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:20.821%;left:37.708%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:20.788%;left:39.041%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Badrinath"><img alt="Badrinath" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="font-size:91%;width:6em;left:5px"><div><b>Badrinath</b></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:54.462%;left:58.781%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Puri"><img alt="Puri" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="font-size:91%;width:6em;left:5px"><div><b>Puri</b></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:53.491%;left:25.703%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:38.883%;left:40.375%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:39.329%;left:56.247%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:46.205%;left:20.416%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:52.147%;left:27.189%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:53.765%;left:25.56%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:57.051%;left:18.533%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:81.688%;left:38.613%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:81.163%;left:38.347%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:82.206%;left:37.914%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:76.564%;left:41.224%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:68.263%;left:29.599%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:66.313%;left:27.552%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:54.192%;left:59.671%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:41.973%;left:15.943%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:48.308%;left:65.937%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/8px-Blue_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/12px-Blue_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/16px-Blue_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:30.769%;left:33.344%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/8px-Blue_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/12px-Blue_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/16px-Blue_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:23.212%;left:34.906%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/8px-Blue_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/12px-Blue_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/16px-Blue_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:44.062%;left:27.438%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/8px-Blue_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/12px-Blue_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/16px-Blue_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:10.108%;left:26.566%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Amarnath"><img alt="Amarnath" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/8px-Blue_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/12px-Blue_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/16px-Blue_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="font-size:91%;width:6em;left:5px"><div><b>Amarnath</b></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:75.938%;left:39.719%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/8px-Blue_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/12px-Blue_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/16px-Blue_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:90.529%;left:32.941%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/8px-Blue_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/12px-Blue_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/16px-Blue_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:33.846%;left:23.594%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu temple"><img alt="Hindu temple" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/8px-Blue_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/12px-Blue_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blue_pog.svg/16px-Blue_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:74.135%;left:38.141%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Tirupati"><img alt="Tirupati" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/8px-Green_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/12px-Green_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Green_pog.svg/16px-Green_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="font-size:91%;width:6em;left:5px"><div><b>Tirupati</b></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:59.203%;left:40.447%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="" Ramappa Temple""><img alt="" Ramappa Temple"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/8px-Orange_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/12px-Orange_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Orange_pog.svg/16px-Orange_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="font-size:91%;width:6em;left:5px"><div>" Ramappa Temple"</div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:India_location_map.svg" title="File:India location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Major Hindu temple sites for <i><a href="/wiki/Tirtha_(Hinduism)" title="Tirtha (Hinduism)">Tirtha</a></i> and general tourism in India. Orange markers are UNESCO world heritage sites.</div></div></div>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, the liturgical language of Hinduism, the word <i>mandira</i> means "house" (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: <span lang="sa">मन्दिर</span>). Ancient Sanskrit texts use many words for temple, such as <i>matha, vayuna, kirti, kesapaksha, devavasatha, vihara, suravasa, surakula, devatayatana, amaragara, devakula, devagrha, devabhavana, devakulika</i>, and <i>niketana</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></sup> Regionally, they are also known as <i>prasada</i>, <i>vimana</i>, <i>kshetra</i>, <i>gudi</i>, <i>ambalam</i>, <i>punyakshetram</i>, <i>deval</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Deula" title="Deula">deula</a></i>, <i>devasthanam</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Koil" title="Koil">kovil</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">candi</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Balinese_temple" title="Balinese temple">pura</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">wat</a></i>.
</p><p>The following are the other names by which a Hindu temple is referred to in India:
</p>
<ul><li><i>Devasthana</i> (ದೇವಸ್ಥಾನ) in <a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a></li>
<li><i>Deul</i>/<i>Doul</i>/<i>Dewaaloy</i> in <a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Deul" class="mw-redirect" title="Deul">Deval</a>/Raul/Mandir</i> (मंदिर) in <a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a></li>
<li><i>Devro/Mindar</i> in <a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajasthani language">Rajasthani</a></li>
<li><i>Devala</i><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r953630815">.mw-parser-output .script-kaithi{font-family:"Noto Sans Kaithi"}</style><span class="script-kaithi">( 𑂠𑂵𑂫𑂪 )</span>, <i>Devalaya</i><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r953630815"><span class="script-kaithi">( 𑂠𑂵𑂫𑂰𑂪𑂨 )</span>, <i>Math</i><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r953630815"><span class="script-kaithi">(𑂧𑂘)</span>, <i>Devaghar</i><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r953630815"><span class="script-kaithi">( 𑂠𑂵𑂫𑂐𑂩 )</span> or <i>Mandira</i><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r953630815"><span class="script-kaithi">(𑂧𑂢𑂹𑂠𑂱𑂩)</span> in <a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_language" title="Bhojpuri language">Bhojpuri</a>. <i>Thakurbari</i><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r953630815"><span class="script-kaithi">(𑂘𑂍𑂳𑂩𑂥𑂰𑂚𑂲)</span> and <i>sivala</i><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r953630815"><span class="script-kaithi">(𑂮𑂱𑂫𑂰𑂪𑂰)</span> are specially use of Krishna temple and Shiva temple respectively.</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Deula" title="Deula">Deula</a></i> (ଦେଉଳ) or <i>Mandira</i>(ମନ୍ଦିର) in <a href="/wiki/Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a> and <i>Gudi</i> in Kosali Odia</li>
<li><i>Gudi</i> (గుడి), <i>Devalayam</i> (దేవాలయం), <i>Devasthanam</i> (దేవస్థానము), <i>Kovela</i> (కోవెల), <i>Kshetralayam</i> (క్షేత్రాలయం), <i>Punyakshetram</i> (పుణ్యక్షేత్రం), or <i>Punyakshetralayam</i> (పుణ్యక్షేత్రాలయం), <i>Mandiramu</i> (మందిరము) in <a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Kovil" class="mw-redirect" title="Kovil">Kovil</a></i> or kō-vill (கோவில்) and occasionally <i>Aalayam</i> (ஆலயம்) in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>; the Tamil word <i>Kovil</i> means "residence of God"<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a></sup></li>
<li><i>Kshetram</i> (ക്ഷേത്രം), <i>Ambalam</i> (അമ്പലം), <i>Kovil</i> (കോവിൽ), <i>Devasthanam</i> (ദേവസ്ഥാനം) or <i>Devalayam</i> (ദേവാലയം) in <a href="/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam">Malayalam</a></li>
<li><i>Mandir</i> (मंदिर) in <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_language" title="Kashmiri language">Kashmiri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a> (ਮੰਦਰ), <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a> (મંદિર), and <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a> (مندر)<sup id="cite_ref-Shackle1990_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shackle1990-178">[178]</a></sup></li>
<li><i>Mondir</i> (মন্দির) in <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a></li></ul>
<p>In Southeast Asia temples known as:
</p>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, especially in <a href="/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>, used both for Hindu or Buddhist temples.</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Balinese_temple" title="Balinese temple">Pura</a></i> in Hindu majority island of <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, Indonesia.</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, also applied to both Hindu and Buddhist temples.</li></ul>
<dl><dt>Temple sites</dt></dl>
<p>Some lands, including Varanasi, Puri, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Somnath, Mathura and Rameswara, are considered holy in Hinduism. They are called <i>kṣétra</i> (Sanskrit: क्षेत्र<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a></sup>). A kṣétra has many temples, including one or more major ones. These temples and its location attracts pilgrimage called tirtha (or tirthayatra).<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a></sup>
</p>
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<li id="cite_note-CNBC50-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CNBC50_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnbctv18.com/travel/culture/ayodhya-ram-temple-50-million-visitors-expected-each-year-surpassing-tirupati-mecca-and-vatican-18880731.htm">"Ayodhya's Ram Temple may draw 50 million visitors annually, to surpass Tirupati, Mecca, and Vatican"</a>. CNBC. 24 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2024</span>. <q>Ayodhya's Ram Temple may draw 50 million visitors annually, to surpass Tirupati, Mecca, and Vatican</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ayodhya%27s+Ram+Temple+may+draw+50+million+visitors+annually%2C+to+surpass+Tirupati%2C+Mecca%2C+and+Vatican&rft.date=2024-01-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbctv18.com%2Ftravel%2Fculture%2Fayodhya-ram-temple-50-million-visitors-expected-each-year-surpassing-tirupati-mecca-and-vatican-18880731.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFStella_Kramrisch1946" class="citation book cs1">Stella Kramrisch (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NNcXrBlI9S0C"><i>The Hindu Temple</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 135, context: 40–43, 110–114, 129–139 with footnotes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0223-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0223-0"><bdi>978-81-208-0223-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+Temple&rft.pages=135%2C+context%3A+40-43%2C+110-114%2C+129-139+with+footnotes&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1946&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0223-0&rft.au=Stella+Kramrisch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNNcXrBlI9S0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span>, Quote: "The [Hindu] temple is the seat and dwelling of God, according to the majority of the [Indian] names" (p. 135); "The temple as Vimana, proportionately measured throughout, is the house and body of God" (p. 133).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Michell1977p61-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Michell1977p61_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Michell1977" class="citation book cs1">George Michell (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA61"><i>The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. pp. 61–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-53230-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-53230-1"><bdi>978-0-226-53230-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+Temple%3A+An+Introduction+to+Its+Meaning+and+Forms&rft.pages=61-62&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-226-53230-1&rft.au=George+Michell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DajgImLs62gwC%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span>; Quote: "The Hindu temple is designed to bring about contact between man and the gods of Hinduism religion" (...) "The architecture of the Hindu temple symbolically represents this quest by setting out to dissolve or decrease the boundaries between man and the divine".</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-stellakvol1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1_4-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFStella_Kramrisch1946" class="citation book cs1">Stella Kramrisch (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NNcXrBlI9S0C"><i>The Hindu Temple</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 19–43, 135–137, context: 129–144 with footnotes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0223-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0223-0"><bdi>978-81-208-0223-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+Temple&rft.pages=19-43%2C+135-137%2C+context%3A+129-144+with+footnotes&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1946&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0223-0&rft.au=Stella+Kramrisch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNNcXrBlI9S0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Subhash_Kak" title="Subhash Kak">Subhash Kak</a>, "The axis and the perimeter of the temple." Kannada Vrinda Seminar Sangama 2005 held at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles on 19 November 2005.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Subhash Kak, "Time, space and structure in ancient India." Conference on Sindhu-Sarasvati Valley Civilization: A Reappraisal, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, 21 & 22 February 2009.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stella_Kramrisch" title="Stella Kramrisch">Stella Kramrisch</a>, <i>The Hindu Temple</i>, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3">978-81-208-0222-3</a>, pp. 346-357 and 423-424</span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Klostermaier" title="Klaus Klostermaier">Klaus Klostermaier</a>, "The Divine Presence in Space and Time – Murti, Tirtha, Kala"; in <i>A Survey of Hinduism</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7082-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7082-4">978-0-7914-7082-4</a>, State University of New York Press, pp. 268-277.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Michell1977" class="citation book cs1">George Michell (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA61"><i>The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. pp. 61–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-53230-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-53230-1"><bdi>978-0-226-53230-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+Temple%3A+An+Introduction+to+Its+Meaning+and+Forms&rft.pages=61-76&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-226-53230-1&rft.au=George+Michell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DajgImLs62gwC%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-susanlchap4-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-susanlchap4_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-susanlchap4_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-susanlchap4_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-susanlchap4_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-susanlchap4_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-susanlchap4_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan Lewandowski, "The Hindu Temple in South India", in <i>Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment</i>, Anthony D. King (Ed.), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0710202345" title="Special:BookSources/978-0710202345">978-0710202345</a>, Routledge, Chapter 4</span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M.R. Bhat (1996), <i>Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120810600" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120810600">978-8120810600</a>, Motilal Banarsidass</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-bstein-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bstein_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bstein_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Burton Stein, "The Economic Function of a Medieval South Indian Temple", <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>, Vol. 19 (February 1960), pp. 163-76.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Michell (1988), <i>The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms</i>, University of Chicago Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226532301" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226532301">978-0226532301</a>, pp. 58-65.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alice Boner (1990), <i>Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120807051" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120807051">978-8120807051</a>, see Introduction and pp. 36-37.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Francis Ching et al., <i>A Global History of Architecture</i>, Wiley, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470402573" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470402573">978-0470402573</a>, pp. 227-302.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brad Olsen (2004), <i>Sacred Places Around the World: 108 Destinations</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1888729108" title="Special:BookSources/978-1888729108">978-1888729108</a>, pp. 117-119.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Younger, <i>New Homelands: Hindu Communities</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195391640" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195391640">978-0195391640</a>, Oxford University Press</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Several books and journal articles have documented the effect on Hindu temples of Islam's arrival in South Asia and Southeast Asia:
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGaborieau1985" class="citation journal cs1">Gaborieau, Marc (1985). "From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: idiom, ritual and ideology of the Hindu-Muslim confrontation in South Asia". <i>Anthropology Today</i>. <b>1</b> (3). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 7–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3033123">10.2307/3033123</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3033123">3033123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anthropology+Today&rft.atitle=From+Al-Beruni+to+Jinnah%3A+idiom%2C+ritual+and+ideology+of+the+Hindu-Muslim+confrontation+in+South+Asia&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=7-14&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3033123&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3033123%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gaborieau&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEaton2000" class="citation journal cs1">Eaton, Richard (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjis%2F11.3.283">"Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States"</a>. <i>Journal of Islamic Studies</i>. <b>11</b> (3): 283–319. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjis%2F11.3.283">10.1093/jis/11.3.283</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Islamic+Studies&rft.atitle=Temple+Desecration+and+Indo-Muslim+States&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=283-319&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjis%2F11.3.283&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjis%252F11.3.283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel" title="Annemarie Schimmel">Annemarie Schimmel</a>, <i>Islam in the Indian Subcontinent</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004061170" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004061170">978-9004061170</a>, Brill Academic, Chapter 1</li>
<li>Robert W. Hefner, <i>Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia</i>, Princeton University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691050461" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691050461">978-0691050461</a>, pp. 28-29.</li></ul>
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-LargestHinduTempleNJ-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LargestHinduTempleNJ_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFrances_Kai-Hwa_Wang2014" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frances_Kai-Hwa_Wang" title="Frances Kai-Hwa Wang">Frances Kai-Hwa Wang</a> (28 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/worlds-largest-hindu-temple-being-built-new-jersey-n166616">"World's Largest Hindu Temple Being Built in New Jersey"</a>. NBC News<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World%27s+Largest+Hindu+Temple+Being+Built+in+New+Jersey&rft.pub=NBC+News&rft.date=2014-07-28&rft.au=Frances+Kai-Hwa+Wang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fnews%2Fasian-america%2Fworlds-largest-hindu-temple-being-built-new-jersey-n166616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-gmichell88-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gmichell88_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gmichell88_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gmichell88_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">George Michell (1988), <i>The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms</i>, University of Chicago Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226532301" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226532301">978-0226532301</a>, Chapter 1</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Subhash Kak, "Time, space and structure in ancient India." Conference on Sindhu-Sarasvati Valley Civilization: A Reappraisal, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, 21 & 22 February 2009. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0903.3252" class="extiw" title="arxiv:0903.3252">0903.3252</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kak, S. Early Indian architecture and art. Migration and Diffusion. vol.6, pp. 6-27 (2005)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alain Daniélou (2001), <i>The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism,</i> translated from French to English by Ken Hurry, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89281-854-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-89281-854-9">0-89281-854-9</a>, pp. 101-127.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Samuel Parker (2010), "Ritual as a Mode of Production: Ethnoarchaeology and Creative Practice in Hindu Temple Arts", <i>South Asian Studies</i>, 26(1), pp. 31-57; Michael Rabe, "Secret Yantras and Erotic Display for Hindu Temples", (Editor: David White), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120817784" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120817784">978-8120817784</a>, <i>Princeton University Readings in Religion</i> (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers), Chapter 25, pp. 435-446.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAntonio_Rigopoulos1998" class="citation book cs1">Antonio Rigopoulos (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZM-BlvaqAf0C"><i>Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara: A Study of the Transformative and bums Inclusive Character of a Multi-faceted Hindu Deity</i></a>. State University of New York Press. pp. 223–224, 243. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3696-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3696-7"><bdi>978-0-7914-3696-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dattatreya%3A+The+Immortal+Guru%2C+Yogin%2C+and+Avatara%3A+A+Study+of+the+Transformative+and+bums+Inclusive+Character+of+a+Multi-faceted+Hindu+Deity&rft.pages=223-224%2C+243&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-3696-7&rft.au=Antonio+Rigopoulos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZM-BlvaqAf0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAlain_Daniélou2001" class="citation book cs1">Alain Daniélou (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=09qUXlCkyVIC"><i>The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism</i></a>. Inner Traditions. pp. 69–71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89281-854-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89281-854-9"><bdi>978-0-89281-854-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+Temple%3A+Deification+of+Eroticism&rft.pages=69-71&rft.pub=Inner+Traditions&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-89281-854-9&rft.au=Alain+Dani%C3%A9lou&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D09qUXlCkyVIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pyong Gap Min, "Religion and Maintenance of Ethnicity among Immigrants – A Comparison of Indian Hindus and Korean Protestants", in <i>Immigrant Faiths</i>, Karen Leonard (Ed.), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0759108165" title="Special:BookSources/978-0759108165">978-0759108165</a>, Chapter 6, pp. 102-103.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Susan_Lewandowski_pp_71-73-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Susan_Lewandowski_pp_71-73_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Susan_Lewandowski_pp_71-73_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0710202345" title="Special:BookSources/978-0710202345">978-0710202345</a>, Routledge, pp. 71-73.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vhpthailand.org/hindu-temple/">"Hindu Temple – Vishva Hindu Parishad – Thailand"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hindu+Temple+%E2%80%93+Vishva+Hindu+Parishad+%E2%80%93+Thailand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvhpthailand.org%2Fhindu-temple%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stella_Kramrisch" title="Stella Kramrisch">Stella Kramrisch</a>, The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3">978-81-208-0222-3</a>, page 4</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stella_Kramrisch" title="Stella Kramrisch">Stella Kramrisch</a>, The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3">978-81-208-0222-3</a>, page 5-6</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-bbdutt-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bbdutt_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bbdutt_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bbdutt_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">BB Dutt (1925), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J3jEJFNxdy4C">Town planning in Ancient India</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8205-487-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-8205-487-5">978-81-8205-487-5</a>; See critical review by LD Barnett, <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</i>, Vol. 4, Issue 2, June 1926, pp. 391.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-stellakramrisch76-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stellakramrisch76_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakramrisch76_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakramrisch76_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakramrisch76_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stellakramrisch76_33-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1 & 2, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0223-3" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0223-3">81-208-0223-3</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack Hebner (2010), Architecture of the Vastu Sastra – According to Sacred Science, in Science of the Sacred (Editor: David Osborn), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0557277247" title="Special:BookSources/978-0557277247">978-0557277247</a>, pp. 85-92; N Lahiri (1996), Archaeological landscapes and textual images: a study of the sacred geography of late medieval Ballabgarh, <i>World Archaeology</i>, 28(2), pp. 244-264</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan Lewandowski (1984), Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, edited by Anthony D. King, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0710202345" title="Special:BookSources/978-0710202345">978-0710202345</a>, Chapter 4</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Sherri_Silverman_2007-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sherri_Silverman_2007_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sherri_Silverman_2007_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sherri Silverman (2007), Vastu: Transcendental Home Design in Harmony with Nature, Gibbs Smith, Utah, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1423601326" title="Special:BookSources/978-1423601326">978-1423601326</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. D. Vasudev (2001), Vastu, Motilal Banarsidas, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1605-6" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1605-6">81-208-1605-6</a>, pp. 74-92.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">LD Barnett, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol 4, Issue 2, June 1926, pp. 391.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-mmgeometry-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mmgeometry_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mmgeometry_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mmgeometry_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mmgeometry_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mmgeometry_39-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMeister1983" class="citation journal cs1">Meister, Michael (1983). "Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples". <i>Artibus Asiae</i>. <b>44</b> (4): 266–296. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3249613">10.2307/3249613</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249613">3249613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artibus+Asiae&rft.atitle=Geometry+and+Measure+in+Indian+Temple+Plans%3A+Rectangular+Temples&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=266-296&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3249613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3249613%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Meister&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-aliceboner66-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aliceboner66_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aliceboner66_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Alice Boner and Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā (1966), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=itQUAAAAIAAJ">Silpa Prakasa Medieval Orissan Sanskrit Text on Temple Architecture</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, E.J. Brill (Netherlands)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Daniel Smith (1963), Ed. Pāncarātra prasāda prasādhapam, A Pancaratra Text on Temple-Building, Syracuse: University of Rochester, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/68138877">68138877</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mahanti and Mahanty (1995 Reprint), Śilpa Ratnākara, Orissa Akademi, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42718271">42718271</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSinha1998" class="citation journal cs1">Sinha, Amita (1998). "Design of Settlements in the Vaastu Shastras". <i>Journal of Cultural Geography</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 27–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08873639809478319">10.1080/08873639809478319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cultural+Geography&rft.atitle=Design+of+Settlements+in+the+Vaastu+Shastras&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=27-41&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08873639809478319&rft.aulast=Sinha&rft.aufirst=Amita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTillotson1997" class="citation journal cs1">Tillotson, G. H. R. (1997). "Svastika Mansion: A Silpa-Sastra in the 1930s". <i>South Asian Studies</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 87–97. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02666030.1997.9628528">10.1080/02666030.1997.9628528</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Svastika+Mansion%3A+A+Silpa-Sastra+in+the+1930s&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=87-97&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02666030.1997.9628528&rft.aulast=Tillotson&rft.aufirst=G.+H.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-skramrisch1958-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-skramrisch1958_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skramrisch1958_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skramrisch1958_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skramrisch1958_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skramrisch1958_45-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stella Kramrisch (1958), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/538558">Traditions of the Indian Craftsman</a>, The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 71, No. 281, (Jul. - Sep., 1958), pp. 224-230</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ganapati Sastri (1920), Īśānaśivagurudeva paddhati, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71801033">71801033</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-hgood-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hgood_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hgood_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather Elgood (2000), <i>Hinduism and the religious arts</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0304707393" title="Special:BookSources/978-0304707393">978-0304707393</a>, Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 121-125.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H, Kern (1865), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/BrhatSamhitaSanskrit.pdf">The Brhat Sanhita of Varaha-mihara</a>, The Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-sl6869-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sl6869_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sl6869_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sl6869_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sl6869_49-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sl6869_49-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sl6869_49-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan Lewandowski, <i>The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment</i>, Anthony D. King (ed.), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0710202345" title="Special:BookSources/978-0710202345">978-0710202345</a>, Routledge, pp. 68-69.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from the fire altar to <a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a>. The alignment along cardinal directions, similarly, is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a>. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, or make offerings with the Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas lacks the central core, and is also a meditative constructive. The 9-pada design has a sacred surrounded center, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastu-mandalas may use the 9- through 49-pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called <i>Manduka</i>, <i>Bhekapada</i> or <i>Ajira</i> in various ancient Sanskrit texts.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In addition to a square four-sided layout, the <i>Brhat Samhita</i> also describes Vastu and mandala design principles based on a perfect triangle (3), hexagon (6), octagon (8) and hexadecagon (16) sided layouts, according to Stella Kramrisch.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRian2007" class="citation journal cs1">Rian; et al. (2007). "Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho". <i>Building and Environment</i>. <b>42</b> (12): 4093–4107. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.buildenv.2007.01.028">10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Building+and+Environment&rft.atitle=Fractal+geometry+as+the+synthesis+of+Hindu+cosmology+in+Kandariya+Mahadev+temple%2C+Khajuraho&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=4093-4107&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.buildenv.2007.01.028&rft.au=Rian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stella Kramrisch (1976), <i>The Hindu Temple</i>, Volume 1, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0223-3" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0223-3">81-208-0223-3</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Datta and Beynon (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30045633/beynon-earlyconnections-2011.pdf">"Early Connections: Reflections on the canonical lineage of Southeast Asian temples"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181101062440/http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30045633/beynon-earlyconnections-2011.pdf">Archived</a> 1 November 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <i>EAAC 2011: South of East Asia: Re-addressing East Asian Architecture and Urbanism: Proceedings of the East Asian Architectural Culture International Conference</i>, Department of Architecture, National University of Singapore, Singapore, pp. 1-17</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">V.S. Pramar, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250257">Some Evidence on the Wooden Origins of the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala</a>,<i>Artibus Asiae</i>, Vol. 46, No. 4 (1985), pp. 305-311.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This concept has equivalence to the concept of <a href="/wiki/Acintya" title="Acintya">Acintya</a>, or Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa, in Balinese Hindu temples; elsewhere it has been referred to as <a href="/wiki/Satcitananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Satcitananda">satcitananda</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stella Kramrisch (1976), <i>The Hindu Temple</i>, Vol. 1, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0223-3" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0223-3">81-208-0223-3</a>, p. 8.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-mwmmountain-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mwmmountain_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mwmmountain_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMeister2006" class="citation journal cs1">Meister, Michael W. (March 2006). "Mountain Temples and Temple-Mountains: Masrur". <i>Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians</i>. <b>65</b> (1): 26–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F25068237">10.2307/25068237</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25068237">25068237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Society+of+Architectural+Historians&rft.atitle=Mountain+Temples+and+Temple-Mountains%3A+Masrur&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=26-49&rft.date=2006-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F25068237&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25068237%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Meister&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Trivedi,_K._1989-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Trivedi,_K._1989_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trivedi,_K._1989_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Trivedi, K. (1989). "Hindu temples: models of a fractal universe." <i>The Visual Computer,</i> 5(4), 243-258</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Bafna, "On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition," <i>Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians</i>, Vol. 59, No. 1 (Mar., 2000), pp. 26-49</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMeister1979" class="citation journal cs1">Meister, Michael W. (April–June 1979). "Maṇḍala and Practice in Nāgara Architecture in North India". <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>. <b>99</b> (2): 204–219. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F602657">10.2307/602657</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/602657">602657</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Ma%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dala+and+Practice+in+N%C4%81gara+Architecture+in+North+India&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=204-219&rft.date=1979-04%2F1979-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F602657&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F602657%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Meister&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-stellakvol1011-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stellakvol1011_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stella Kramrisch, <i>The Hindu Temple</i>, Vol. 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3">978-81-208-0222-3</a>, pp. 10-11.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Michell (1988), <i>The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms</i>, University of Chicago Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226532301" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226532301">978-0226532301</a>, pp. 21-22.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edmund Leach, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3629670">"The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture"</a>, <i>Journal of Anthropological Research</i>, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn 1983), pp. 243-264.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julius_J._Lipner" title="Julius J. Lipner">Julius J. Lipner</a>, <i>Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices</i>, 2nd Edition, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-45677-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-45677-7">978-0-415-45677-7</a>, page 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.";</li>
<li>Lester Kurtz (Ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0123695031" title="Special:BookSources/978-0123695031">978-0123695031</a>, Academic Press, 2008;</li>
<li>MK Gandhi, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf"><i>The Essence of Hinduism</i></a>, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see p. 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."</li></ul>
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/73.html">क्षैत्रज्ञ</a> Jim Funderburk and Peter Scharf (2012); Quote:
<ul><li>क्षैत्रज्ञ [ <i>kṣaitrajña</i> ] n. ( fr. [ <i>kṣetra-jñá</i> ] g. [ <i>yuvādi</i> ], spirituality, nature of the soul Lit. W.; the knowledge of the soul Lit. W.</li></ul>
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the following two in Ewert Cousins's series on World Spirituality:
<ul><li>Bhavasar and Kiem, "Spirituality and Health", in <i>Hindu Spirituality</i>, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8245-0755-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8245-0755-X">0-8245-0755-X</a>, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp. 319-337;</li>
<li>John Arapura, "Spirit and Spiritual Knowledge in the Upanishads", in <i>Hindu Spirituality</i>, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8245-0755-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8245-0755-X">0-8245-0755-X</a>, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp. 64-85.</li></ul>
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-gf-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gf_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gavin Flood, <i>Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism</i>, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17893-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17893-9">978-90-04-17893-9</a>, see Article on <i>Wisdom and Knowledge</i>, pp. 881-884.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-skv189-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-skv189_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stella_Kramrisch" title="Stella Kramrisch">Stella Kramrisch</a>, <i>The Hindu Temple</i>, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3">978-81-208-0222-3</a>, pp. 8-9.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Rabe (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asiatica.org/ijts/vol2_no2/sexual-imagery-phantasmagorical-castles-khajuraho/#fn35up">"Sexual Imagery on the 'Phantasmagorical Castles' at Khajuraho – The Artha of Temple Kama"</a>, <i>International Journal of Tantric Studies</i>, Vol. 2, No. 2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-eleach1983-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eleach1983_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eleach1983_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">E Leach, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3629670">"The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture"</a>, <i>Journal of Anthropological Research</i>, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn, 1983), pp. 249-250.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Beth Heston, "Iconographic Themes of the Gopura of the Kailāsanātha Temple at Ellora", <i>Artibus Asiae</i>, Vol. 43, No. 3 (1981–1982), pp. 219-235.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E Leach, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3629670">"The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture"</a>, <i>Journal of Anthropological Research</i>, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn, 1983), pp. 262.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=shilpin+&trans=Translate&direction=AU">zilpin</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160314060105/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?beginning=0+&direction=au&script=hk&tinput=shilpin+&trans=translate">Archived</a> 14 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> University of Cologne, Germany</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-sparker1987-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sparker1987_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sparker1987_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Samuel Parker (1987), "Artistic practice and education in India: A historical overview", <i>Journal of Aesthetic Education</i>, pp. 123-141.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCoomaraswamy1928" class="citation journal cs1">Coomaraswamy, Ananda (1928). "Indian Architectural Terms". <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>. <b>48</b>: 269. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F593145">10.2307/593145</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/593145">593145</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Indian+Architectural+Terms&rft.volume=48&rft.pages=269&rft.date=1928&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F593145&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F593145%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Coomaraswamy&rft.aufirst=Ananda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vatsyayana, Kamasutra I.3, Jayamangala</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stella Kramrisch, <i>The Hindu Temple</i>, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3">978-81-208-0222-3</a>, pp. 11.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMisra2011" class="citation journal cs1">Misra, R. N. (2011). "Silpis in Ancient India: Beyond their Ascribed Locus in Ancient Society". <i>Social Scientist</i>. <b>39</b> (7/8): 43–54.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Scientist&rft.atitle=Silpis+in+Ancient+India%3A+Beyond+their+Ascribed+Locus+in+Ancient+Society&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=7%2F8&rft.pages=43-54&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Misra&rft.aufirst=R.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJoshi2013" class="citation journal cs1">Joshi (2013). "Boon of astronomy: Rituals and religious festivals in Odisha for a peaceful society". <i>International Journal of Physical and Social Sciences</i>. <b>3</b> (5): 162–176.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Physical+and+Social+Sciences&rft.atitle=Boon+of+astronomy%3A+Rituals+and+religious+festivals+in+Odisha+for+a+peaceful+society&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=162-176&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Joshi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-michelltempleschool-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-michelltempleschool_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-michelltempleschool_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-michelltempleschool_81-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226532301" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226532301">978-0226532301</a>, pages 58-60</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartmut Scharfe (2002), <i>From Temple schools to Universities</i>, in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004125568" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004125568">978-9004125568</a>, pages 166-193</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHeitzman1987" class="citation journal cs1">Heitzman, James (1987). "Temple Urbanism in Medieval South India". <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>. <b>46</b> (4). Cambridge University Press: 791–826, see Table 1 on p. 805 for an illustrative tabulated distribution. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2057102">10.2307/2057102</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2057102">2057102</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154068714">154068714</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Temple+Urbanism+in+Medieval+South+India&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=791-826%2C+see+Table+1+on+p.+805+for+an+illustrative+tabulated+distribution&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154068714%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2057102%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2057102&rft.aulast=Heitzman&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T Mahalingam (1951), <i>Economic life in the Vijayanagar Empire</i>, University of Madras, pp. 490-498.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burton Stein (4 February 1961), The state, the temple and agriculture development, <i>The Economic Weekly Annual</i>, pp. 179-187.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-michell58-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-michell58_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-michell58_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-michell58_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-michell58_86-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Michell1977" class="citation book cs1">George Michell (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA59"><i>The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. pp. 58–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-53230-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-53230-1"><bdi>978-0-226-53230-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+Temple%3A+An+Introduction+to+Its+Meaning+and+Forms&rft.pages=58-59&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-226-53230-1&rft.au=George+Michell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DajgImLs62gwC%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See:
<ul><li>Diana L. Eck (2000), "Negotiating Hindu Identities in the US", in <a href="/wiki/Harold_Coward" title="Harold Coward">Harold Coward</a>, John R. Hinnells, and Raymond Brady Williams (Editors) – The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and the United States, SUNY Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4509-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4509-9">978-0-7914-4509-9</a>, 219–237</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marion_O%27Callaghan" class="mw-redirect" title="Marion O'Callaghan">Marion O'Callaghan</a> (1998), "Hinduism in the Indian Diaspora in Trinidad", <i>Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies</i>, Vol. 11, Article 5, doi 10.7825/2164-6279.1178</li>
<li>Chandra Jayawardena, "Religious Belief and Social Change: Aspects of the Development of Hinduism in British Guiana", <i>Comparative Studies in Society and History</i>, Vol. 8, No. 2 (January 1966), pp. 211-240.</li></ul>
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi (2011), Wonder of the Age: Master Painters of India, 1100–1900, The <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1588394309" title="Special:BookSources/978-1588394309">978-1588394309</a>, page 19</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Saraju Rath (2012), Aspects of Manuscript Culture in South India, Brill Academic, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004219007" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004219007">978-9004219007</a>, pages ix, 158-168, 252-259</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartmut Scharfe (2002), <i>From Temple schools to Universities</i>, in Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004125568" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004125568">978-9004125568</a>, pages 183-186</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wayne A. Wiegand and Donald Davis (1994), Encyclopedia of Library History, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0824057879" title="Special:BookSources/978-0824057879">978-0824057879</a>, page 350</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartmut Scharfe (2002), <i>From Temple schools to Universities</i>, in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004125568" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004125568">978-9004125568</a>, pages 169-171</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartmut Scharfe (2002), <i>From Temple schools to Universities</i>, in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004125568" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004125568">978-9004125568</a>, page 175</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Dayalan1992p202-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dayalan1992p202_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFD._Dayalan1992" class="citation book cs1">D. Dayalan (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A3XXAAAAMAAJ"><i>Early Temples of Tamilnadu: Their Role in Socio-Economic Life (c. 550-925 CE)</i></a>. Harman. pp. 202–203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85151-55-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-85151-55-7"><bdi>978-81-85151-55-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Temples+of+Tamilnadu%3A+Their+Role+in+Socio-Economic+Life+%28c.+550-925+CE%29&rft.pages=202-203&rft.pub=Harman&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-81-85151-55-7&rft.au=D.+Dayalan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA3XXAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span>, Quote: "There were some institutions [Hindu temples] which may be called temple-colleges and strove for the promotion of education in the country. They also acted as great residential institutions and offered facilities for the study and stay of hundreds of students and teachers from far and near. Some of these were triple institutions, a college, a hostel and a hospital knit together. Many of such institutions are found described in the Chola inscriptions. (...) But the earliest known Vedic institution of advanced studies that existed in the Tamil country was the vidyasthana at Bahur near Pondicherry. A copper plate grant issued during the reign of Nripatungavarman (877 CE) records the gift of certain villages as <i>vidya-bhoga</i> for its maintenance."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-scharfetempleschools-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scharfetempleschools_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scharfetempleschools_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartmut Scharfe (2002), <i>From Temple schools to Universities</i>, in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004125568" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004125568">978-9004125568</a>, pages 173-174</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-scharfetempleschools2-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scharfetempleschools2_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scharfetempleschools2_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartmut Scharfe (2002), <i>From Temple schools to Universities</i>, in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004125568" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004125568">978-9004125568</a>, page 176-182</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Zysk1998p45-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zysk1998p45_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zysk1998p45_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zysk1998p45_97-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_G._Zysk1998" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth G. Zysk (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BAFndFpP4oUC"><i>Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 45–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1528-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1528-5"><bdi>978-81-208-1528-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asceticism+and+Healing+in+Ancient+India%3A+Medicine+in+the+Buddhist+Monastery&rft.pages=45-46&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1528-5&rft.au=Kenneth+G.+Zysk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBAFndFpP4oUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Willis2014" class="citation book cs1">Michael Willis (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ShzJoQEACAAJ"><i>The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual: Temples and the Establishment of the Gods</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-46016-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-46016-4"><bdi>978-1-107-46016-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Hindu+Ritual%3A+Temples+and+the+Establishment+of+the+Gods&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-107-46016-4&rft.au=Michael+Willis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DShzJoQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Michell1977" class="citation book cs1">George Michell (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC&pg=PA59"><i>The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. pp. 59–60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-53230-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-53230-1"><bdi>978-0-226-53230-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+Temple%3A+An+Introduction+to+Its+Meaning+and+Forms&rft.pages=59-60&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-226-53230-1&rft.au=George+Michell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DajgImLs62gwC%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKapila_Vatsyayan1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kapila_Vatsyayan" title="Kapila Vatsyayan">Kapila Vatsyayan</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X1a7XZdH1V0C&pg=PA198"><i>Concepts of Space, Ancient and Modern</i></a>. Abhinav. pp. 198–199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-252-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-252-9"><bdi>978-81-7017-252-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concepts+of+Space%2C+Ancient+and+Modern&rft.pages=198-199&rft.pub=Abhinav&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-81-7017-252-9&rft.au=Kapila+Vatsyayan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX1a7XZdH1V0C%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFritzMichell2016" class="citation book cs1">Fritz, John M; Michell, George (2016). <i>Hampi Vijayanagara</i>. Jaico. pp. 61–63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8495-602-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-8495-602-3"><bdi>978-81-8495-602-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hampi+Vijayanagara&rft.pages=61-63&rft.pub=Jaico&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-81-8495-602-3&rft.aulast=Fritz&rft.aufirst=John+M&rft.au=Michell%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAnila_Verghese2002" class="citation book cs1">Anila Verghese (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TDduAAAAMAAJ"><i>Hampi</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 20, 33, 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-565433-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-565433-2"><bdi>978-0-19-565433-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hampi&rft.pages=20%2C+33%2C+39&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-565433-2&rft.au=Anila+Verghese&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTDduAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-sen126-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sen126_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sen126_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFColleen_Taylor_Sen2004" class="citation book cs1">Colleen Taylor Sen (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YIyV_5wrplMC&pg=PA126"><i>Food Culture in India</i></a>. Greenwood. pp. 126–127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32487-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32487-1"><bdi>978-0-313-32487-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+Culture+in+India&rft.pages=126-127&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32487-1&rft.au=Colleen+Taylor+Sen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYIyV_5wrplMC%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertina_Nugteren2005" class="citation book cs1">Albertina Nugteren (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SkPQAkBGA9YC&pg=PA412"><i>Belief, Bounty, And Beauty: Rituals Around Sacred Trees in India</i></a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 412–413. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-14601-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-14601-6"><bdi>90-04-14601-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belief%2C+Bounty%2C+And+Beauty%3A+Rituals+Around+Sacred+Trees+in+India&rft.pages=412-413&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=90-04-14601-6&rft.au=Albertina+Nugteren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSkPQAkBGA9YC%26pg%3DPA412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-mwmcaveforest-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mwmcaveforest_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mwmcaveforest_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMeister1981" class="citation journal cs1">Meister, Michael W. (1981). "Forest and Cave: Temples at Candrabhāgā and Kansuān". <i>Archives of Asian Art</i>. <b>34</b>. University of Hawai'i Press: 56–73. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20111117">20111117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Asian+Art&rft.atitle=Forest+and+Cave%3A+Temples+at+Candrabh%C4%81g%C4%81+and+Kansu%C4%81n&rft.volume=34&rft.pages=56-73&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20111117%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Meister&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gary Tarr, Chronology and Development of the Chāḷukya Cave Temples, Ars Orientalis, Vol. 8 (1970), pp. 155-184.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jutta Neubauer (1981), The Stepwells of Gujarat: in art-historical perspective, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0391022843" title="Special:BookSources/978-0391022843">978-0391022843</a>, see Introduction, Chapters 1 and 2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMeister1975–1976" class="citation journal cs1">Meister, Michael W. (1975–1976). "A Field Report on Temples at Kusuma". <i>Archives of Asian Art</i>. <b>29</b>. University of Hawai'i Press: 23–46. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20062576">20062576</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Asian+Art&rft.atitle=A+Field+Report+on+Temples+at+Kusuma&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=23-46&rft.date=1975%2F1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20062576%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Meister&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-jneubauer-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jneubauer_109-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jneubauer_109-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jutta Neubauer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23005658">"The stepwells of Gujarat"</a>, <i>India International Centre Quarterly</i>, Vol. 26, No. 2 (Summer 1999), pp. 75-80.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/922">Rani-ki-vav at Patan, Gujarat</a>, UNESCO World Heritage Site.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/would-you-like-to-know-these-amazing-facts-about-elephanta-caves-1455523138-1">"Would you like to Know These Amazing facts about Elephanta Caves"</a>. <i>Jagranjosh.com</i>. 15 February 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jagranjosh.com&rft.atitle=Would+you+like+to+Know+These+Amazing+facts+about+Elephanta+Caves&rft.date=2016-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jagranjosh.com%2Fgeneral-knowledge%2Fwould-you-like-to-know-these-amazing-facts-about-elephanta-caves-1455523138-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-grao1914-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-grao1914_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-grao1914_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-grao1914_112-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-grao1914_112-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-grao1914_112-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gopinath Rao (1914), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924071128825#page/n61/mode/2up">Elements of Hindu Iconography</a> Madras, Cornell University Archives, pp. 17-39.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_sa/jabaladarshana_sa.html">Jabaladarsana Upanishad</a> 1.59</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Valmiki Ramayana, Ayodhya Khand, Canto 50, Verse 8</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Brockington1998-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brockington1998_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJ._L._Brockington1998" class="citation book cs1">J. L. Brockington (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C&pg=PA379"><i>The Sanskrit Epics</i></a>. BRILL. pp. 379–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10260-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-10260-4"><bdi>90-04-10260-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sanskrit+Epics&rft.pages=379-&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=90-04-10260-4&rft.au=J.+L.+Brockington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHR-_LK5kl18C%26pg%3DPA379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-mm1988e-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mm1988e_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mm1988e_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mm1988e_116-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mm1988e_116-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mm1988e_116-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mm1988e_116-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mm1988e_116-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Meister (1988), Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Oxford University Press, 0-691-04053-2, Chapter 1</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Subhash_Kak" title="Subhash Kak">Subhash Kak</a>, Early Indian Architecture and Art, Migration & Diffusion, Vol.6/Nr.23, pages 6-27, 2005.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-The_Hindu_Temple_1946-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Hindu_Temple_1946_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stella_Kramrisch" title="Stella Kramrisch">Stella Kramrisch</a>, The Hindu Temple. University of Calcutta, Calcutta, 1946.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Madho Sarup Vats (1952), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hzwTAAAAIAAJ">The Gupta Temple at Deogarh</a>, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, Vol. LXX, pages 49-51 Plates 1-3</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCarmel_BerksonWendy_DonigerGeorge_Michell1999" class="citation book cs1">Carmel Berkson; Wendy Doniger; George Michell (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_RYqq7um0hcC"><i>Elephanta: The Cave of Shiva</i></a>. Princeton University Press (Motilal Banarsidass, Reprint). pp. 17–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1284-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1284-0"><bdi>978-81-208-1284-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elephanta%3A+The+Cave+of+Shiva&rft.pages=17-21&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press+%28Motilal+Banarsidass%2C+Reprint%29&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1284-0&rft.au=Carmel+Berkson&rft.au=Wendy+Doniger&rft.au=George+Michell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_RYqq7um0hcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Banerji, New Light on the Gupta Temples at Deogarh, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol V (1963), pp. 37-49.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Saraswati, Temple Architecture in the Gupta Age, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol VIII (1940), pp. 146-158.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joanna Williams, The Art of Gupta India, Empire and Province, Princeton, 1982</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art (New York, 1965 reprint), pp. 78-80.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gary Tartakov, "The Beginning of Dravidian Temple Architecture in Stone", <i>Artibus Asiae</i>, Vol. 42, No. 1 (1980), pp. 39-99.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Meister (Editor), Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Architecture – South India 200 BCE to 1324 CE, University of Pennsylvania Press (1983), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8122-7840-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8122-7840-2">0-8122-7840-2</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Eaton (5 January 2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_eaton_temples2.pdf">"Temple desecration and Indo-Muslim states"</a>, <i>Frontline</i>, pp. 70-77 (Archived by Columbia University)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See:
<ul><li>Elizabeth Merklinger, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20752479">The Mosques of Raichur: A preliminary classification</a>, Kunst des Orients, Vol. 12, H. 1/2 (1978/1979), pp. 79-94.</li>
<li>Mark Jarzombek et al. (2010), <i>A Global History of Architecture</i>, Wiley, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470402573" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470402573">978-0470402573</a>, Chapters and Sections: "1200 CE – Delhi through Qutb Minar"</li>
<li>Ali Javid, <i>World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India</i>, Volume 1, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0875864839" title="Special:BookSources/978-0875864839">978-0875864839</a>, pp. 263. Quote - "The stones to construct the mosque were obtained by demolishing twenty seven Hindu and Jain temples."</li></ul>
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See:
<ul><li>Peter Jackson (2003), The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521543293" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521543293">978-0521543293</a>, pp. 168</li>
<li>A.L. Srivastava (1966), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/sultanateofdelhi001929mbp#page/n345/mode/2up/">Delhi Sultanate</a>, 5th Edition, Agra College</li>
<li>Vincent Smith (1920), <i>The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911</i>, Oxford University Press, pp. 268-269, 306-307, 437-438</li></ul>
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTeotonio_R._De_Souza2016" class="citation book cs1">Teotonio R. De Souza (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://recil.grupolusofona.pt/jspui/bitstream/10437/509/1/PortuGoa.pdf"><i>The Portuguese in Goa, in Acompanhando a Lusofonia em Goa: Preocupações e experiências pessoais</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Lisbon: Grupo Lusofona. pp. 28–30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Portuguese+in+Goa%2C+in+Acompanhando+a+Lusofonia+em+Goa%3A+Preocupa%C3%A7%C3%B5es+e+experi%C3%AAncias+pessoais&rft.pages=28-30&rft.pub=Lisbon%3A+Grupo+Lusofona&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Teotonio+R.+De+Souza&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frecil.grupolusofona.pt%2Fjspui%2Fbitstream%2F10437%2F509%2F1%2FPortuGoa.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marc Gaborieau (1985), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3033123">From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: idiom, ritual and ideology of the Hindu-Muslim confrontation in South Asia</a>, Anthropology Today, 1(3), pp. 7-14.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/243">Ellora Caves</a> Cave 16 – Kailasha Hindu Temple, 8th century CE, UNESCO</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFVenkataramanan2019" class="citation news cs1">Venkataramanan, K. (17 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/what-does-the-places-of-worship-act-protect/article29993190.ece">"What does the Places of Worship Act protect?"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X">0971-751X</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=What+does+the+Places+of+Worship+Act+protect%3F&rft.date=2019-11-17&rft.issn=0971-751X&rft.aulast=Venkataramanan&rft.aufirst=K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Fwhat-does-the-places-of-worship-act-protect%2Farticle29993190.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/PlaceWorshipAct1991_0.pdf">"The Place of Worship(Special Provisions) Act, 1991"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Government of India.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Place+of+Worship%28Special+Provisions%29+Act%2C+1991&rft.pub=Government+of+India&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmha.gov.in%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FPlaceWorshipAct1991_0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRautray2002" class="citation web cs1">Rautray, Samanwaya (10 October 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/1991-central-law-precludes-ayodhya-judgment-setting-precedent/cid/473370">"1991 central law precludes Ayodhya judgment setting precedent"</a>. <i>www.telegraphindia.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.telegraphindia.com&rft.atitle=1991+central+law+precludes+Ayodhya+judgment+setting+precedent&rft.date=2002-10-10&rft.aulast=Rautray&rft.aufirst=Samanwaya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraphindia.com%2Findia%2F1991-central-law-precludes-ayodhya-judgment-setting-precedent%2Fcid%2F473370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew_Atmore_Sherring1868" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Atmore_Sherring" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthew Atmore Sherring">Matthew Atmore Sherring</a> (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.217371"><i>The Sacred City of the Hindus: An Account of Benares in Ancient and Modern Times</i></a>. Trübner & co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.217371/page/n93">51</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sacred+City+of+the+Hindus%3A+An+Account+of+Benares+in+Ancient+and+Modern+Times&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Tr%C3%BCbner+%26+co.&rft.date=1868&rft.au=Matthew+Atmore+Sherring&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.217371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Madhuri_2007-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Madhuri_2007_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMadhuri_Desai2007" class="citation book cs1">Madhuri Desai (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KdD3MYnYey8C&pg=PA30"><i>Resurrecting Banaras: Urban Space, Architecture and Religious Boundaries</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-549-52839-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-549-52839-5"><bdi>978-0-549-52839-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Resurrecting+Banaras%3A+Urban+Space%2C+Architecture+and+Religious+Boundaries&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-549-52839-5&rft.au=Madhuri+Desai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKdD3MYnYey8C%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-re2000-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-re2000_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Eaton (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150406011408/http://jis.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/3/283.extract">Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States</a>, Journal of Islamic Studies, 11(3), pp 283-319</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Bradnock2000p959-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bradnock2000p959_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_BradnockRoma_Bradnock2000" class="citation book cs1">Robert Bradnock; Roma Bradnock (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2hCFDsTbmhoC"><i>India Handbook</i></a>. McGraw-Hill. p. 959. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-658-01151-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-658-01151-1"><bdi>978-0-658-01151-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+Handbook&rft.pages=959&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-658-01151-1&rft.au=Robert+Bradnock&rft.au=Roma+Bradnock&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2hCFDsTbmhoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFlueckiger2015" class="citation book cs1">Flueckiger, Joyce Burkhalter (2015). <i>Everyday Hinduism</i>. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 87–99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6021-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6021-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-6021-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Everyday+Hinduism&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=87-99&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-6021-6&rft.aulast=Flueckiger&rft.aufirst=Joyce+Burkhalter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner, Karel (1994). <i>A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism</i>. Curzon Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1049-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-1049-3">0-7007-1049-3</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEck2007" class="citation book cs1">Eck, Diana L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jEzh2QSNdlEC&newbks=0&hl=en"><i>Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publishe. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-3266-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-3266-4"><bdi>978-81-208-3266-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dar%C5%9Ban%3A+Seeing+the+Divine+Image+in+India&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishe&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-81-208-3266-4&rft.aulast=Eck&rft.aufirst=Diana+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjEzh2QSNdlEC%26newbks%3D0%26hl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Narayanan-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Narayanan_143-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Narayanan_143-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Narayanan, Vasudha. "The Hindu Tradition". In <i>A Concise Introduction to World Religions</i>, ed. Willard G. Oxtoby and Alan F. Segal. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bain, Keith, Pippa Bryun, and David Allardice. <i>Frommer's India</i>. 1st. New Jersey: Wiley Publishing, 2010, p. 75.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Indonesia Handbook</i>, 3rd edition, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1900949514" title="Special:BookSources/978-1900949514">978-1900949514</a>, pp. 38.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-adamhardy-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-adamhardy_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-adamhardy_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Hardy (2007), The Temple Architecture of India, John Wiley & Sons, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470028278" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470028278">978-0470028278</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2001" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Raymond (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will"><i>Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will/page/123">123</a>–136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65422-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65422-7"><bdi>978-0-521-65422-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Swaminarayan+Hinduism&rft.pages=123-136&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65422-7&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontosw0000will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pika Ghosh (2005), Temple to Love: Architecture and Devotion in Seventeenth-century Bengal, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0253344878" title="Special:BookSources/978-0253344878">978-0253344878</a>, Indiana University Press</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.financialexpress.com/lifestyle/model-art-ancient-temples-of-odisha-come-alive-in-crafted-stone-miniatures/1787483/">"Model art: Ancient temples of Odisha come alive in crafted stone miniatures"</a>. <i>The Financial Express</i>. 8 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Financial+Express&rft.atitle=Model+art%3A+Ancient+temples+of+Odisha+come+alive+in+crafted+stone+miniatures&rft.date=2019-12-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.financialexpress.com%2Flifestyle%2Fmodel-art-ancient-temples-of-odisha-come-alive-in-crafted-stone-miniatures%2F1787483%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dibishada Brajasundar Garnayak, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/orissareview/nov-2007/engpdf/Pages55-59.pdf">Evolution of Temple Architecture in Orissa</a>, Orissa Review, November 2007</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Padmaja Vijay Kamat, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://macrotheme.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/9MR25Kam.22264637.pdf">"Temple Economy in Goa: A Case Study"</a>, <i>The Macrotheme Review</i> 2(5), Fall 2013, pp. 97-111.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ching2-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ching2_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFChing2007" class="citation book cs1">Ching, Francis D.K.; et al. (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/globalhistoryofa0000chin"><i>A Global History of Architecture</i></a></span>. New York: John Wiley and Sons. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/globalhistoryofa0000chin/page/762">762</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-26892-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-26892-5"><bdi>978-0-471-26892-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Global+History+of+Architecture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=762&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-471-26892-5&rft.aulast=Ching&rft.aufirst=Francis+D.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fglobalhistoryofa0000chin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ching-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ching_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFChing1995" class="citation book cs1">Ching, Francis D.K. (1995). <i>A Visual Dictionary of Architecture</i>. New York: John Wiley and Sons. p. 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-28451-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-28451-3"><bdi>0-471-28451-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Visual+Dictionary+of+Architecture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=253&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-471-28451-3&rft.aulast=Ching&rft.aufirst=Francis+D.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-mitchell-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mitchell_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMichell1988" class="citation book cs1">Michell, George (1988). <i>The Hindu Temple</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 151–153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-53230-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-53230-5"><bdi>0-226-53230-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+Temple&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=151-153&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-226-53230-5&rft.aulast=Michell&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037402/gopura">"gopura"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 January</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=gopura&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9037402%2Fgopura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ram_Raz" title="Ram Raz">Ram Raz</a>, Henry Harkness (1834), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cdEDAAAAYAAJ">Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5894/">"Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sri+Ranganathaswamy+Temple%2C+Srirangam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Ftentativelists%2F5894%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESircar197964-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESircar197964_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSircar1979">Sircar 1979</a>, p. 64.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESastri197018–182-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESastri197018–182_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSastri1970">Sastri 1970</a>, pp. 18–182.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFearnmyvacation.com2023" class="citation web cs1">earnmyvacation.com (30 May 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earnmyvacation.com/south-indian-temple/">"A Journey Through the Most Beautiful South Indian Temples"</a>. <i>Earn My Vacation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Earn+My+Vacation&rft.atitle=A+Journey+Through+the+Most+Beautiful+South+Indian+Temples&rft.date=2023-05-30&rft.au=earnmyvacation.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearnmyvacation.com%2Fsouth-indian-temple%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBhatt2018" class="citation news cs1">Bhatt, Shiva (13 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://prasantbhatt.com/nepal-travel-trekking/9-amazing-nepali-temple-you-must-visit-before-you-die/">"Major Hindu Temples In Nepal | Himalaya Parvat | Pashupatinath Temple"</a>. <i>Hindu Temples In Nepal</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hindu+Temples+In+Nepal&rft.atitle=Major+Hindu+Temples+In+Nepal+%7C+Himalaya+Parvat+%7C+Pashupatinath+Temple&rft.date=2018-04-13&rft.aulast=Bhatt&rft.aufirst=Shiva&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprasantbhatt.com%2Fnepal-travel-trekking%2F9-amazing-nepali-temple-you-must-visit-before-you-die%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stella Kramrisch, <i>The Hindu Temple</i>, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0222-3">978-81-208-0222-3</a>, pp. 170-172.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kubo Sumiko, Geomorphology, Archaeo-stratigraphy, and 14C Ages of Sambor Prei Kuk Pre-Angkorean Site, Central Cambodia, BULLETIN of the Graduate School of Education of Waseda University (Japan), No.22, March 2012</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, K., & Altenburg, K. (2006). Cultural Landscapes in Asia‐Pacific: Potential for Filling World Heritage Gaps 1. International journal of heritage studies, 12(3), pages 267-282</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Degroot, V. M. Y. (2009). Candi, space and landscape: a study on the distribution, orientation and spatial organization of Central Javanese temple remains (Doctoral dissertation, Leiden Institute for Area Studies, SAS Indonesie, Faculty of Arts, Leiden University)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hindu_Temple_Tour-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hindu_Temple_Tour_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hindutempleyatra.in">"Hindu Temple Tour"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hindu+Temple+Tour&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindutempleyatra.in&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Subhash_Kak" title="Subhash Kak">Kak, S</a>. (2011) Space and order in Prambanan. In M. Gupta (ed.) From Beyond the Eastern Horizon: Essays in honour of Professor <a href="/wiki/Lokesh_Chandra" title="Lokesh Chandra">Lokesh Chandra</a>. Aditya Prakashan, Delhi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.hinduwisdom.info/prambanan_chapter.pdf">[1]</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/642">Prambanan Temple Compounds</a> UNESCO world heritage site</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brigitta Hauser-Schaublin (1993), Keraton and Temples in Bali, in Urban Symbolism (Editor: P. Nas), Brill Academic, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004098558" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004098558">978-9004098558</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hildred Geertz, The Life of a Balinese Temple, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0824825331" title="Special:BookSources/978-0824825331">978-0824825331</a>, University of Hawaii Press</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=949">My Son Sanctuary</a> Vietnam, UNESCO World Heritage Site</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ngô Vǎn Doanh (2006), <i>Champa: Ancient Towers</i>. Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, Chapter 16.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harley, Gail M. (2003). <i>Hindu and Sikh Faiths in America</i>. Facts on File, Inc. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-4987-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-4987-4">0-8160-4987-4</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FlushingHinduTempleCanteen-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FlushingHinduTempleCanteen_174-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFShivani_Vora2016" class="citation news cs1">Shivani Vora (28 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/30/nyregion/in-line-for-blessings-and-sweets-at-hindu-temple-canteen.html?_r=1">"In Line for Blessings and Sweets at Hindu Temple Canteen"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+Line+for+Blessings+and+Sweets+at+Hindu+Temple+Canteen&rft.date=2016-10-28&rft.au=Shivani+Vora&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F10%2F30%2Fnyregion%2Fin-line-for-blessings-and-sweets-at-hindu-temple-canteen.html%3F_r%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-modern_new_jersey-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-modern_new_jersey_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indianexpress.com/article/world/hindu-temple-largest-outside-india-modern-new-jersey-8954200/lite/">"World's largest Hindu temple outside India in modern era to be inaugurated on October 8 in New Jersey"</a>. <i>The Indian Express</i>. 25 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Indian+Express&rft.atitle=World%27s+largest+Hindu+temple+outside+India+in+modern+era+to+be+inaugurated+on+October+8+in+New+Jersey&rft.date=2023-09-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Findianexpress.com%2Farticle%2Fworld%2Fhindu-temple-largest-outside-india-modern-new-jersey-8954200%2Flite%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/tamil/recherche">Sanskrit words for Temple</a> Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Koeln University, Germany</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The word <i>ko</i> in Tamil language also means <i>king</i>, and <i>kovil</i> can also mean <i>king's house</i>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Shackle1990-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shackle1990_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFShackle1990" class="citation book cs1">Shackle, C. (1 January 1990). <i>Hindi and Urdu Since 1800: A Common Reader</i>. Heritage Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788170261629" title="Special:BookSources/9788170261629"><bdi>9788170261629</bdi></a>. <q>Specifically Hindu cultural contexts such as the <i>pūjā</i> 'worship' in the <i>mandir</i> 'temple' will clearly generate a predominance of Sanskrit vocabulary in Urdu as well as Hindi usage.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hindi+and+Urdu+Since+1800%3A+A+Common+Reader&rft.pub=Heritage+Publishers&rft.date=1990-01-01&rft.isbn=9788170261629&rft.aulast=Shackle&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/73.html">क्षेत्र</a> "sacred spot, place of pilgrimage".</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Knut A. Jacobsen (2012), Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: Salvific Space, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415590389" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415590389">978-0415590389</a></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li>Deva, Kṛṣṇa (1995). <i>Temples of India</i>. New Delhi: Aryan Books International.</li>
<li>Goel, S. R., and Arun Shourie (1992). <i>Hindu temples: what happened to them</i>. New Delhi: Voice of India.</li>
<li>Kramrisch, Stella <i>Hindu Temple</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120802223" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120802223">978-8120802223</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMeister1985" class="citation journal cs1">Meister, Michael W. (1985). "Measurement and Proportion in Hindu Temple Architecture". <i>Interdisciplinary Science Reviews</i>. <b>10</b> (3): 248–258. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985ISRv...10..248M">1985ISRv...10..248M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2Fisr.1985.10.3.248">10.1179/isr.1985.10.3.248</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Interdisciplinary+Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=Measurement+and+Proportion+in+Hindu+Temple+Architecture&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=248-258&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2Fisr.1985.10.3.248&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985ISRv...10..248M&rft.aulast=Meister&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Meister, Michael W. <i>Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195615371" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195615371">978-0195615371</a></li>
<li>Michell, George <i>The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226532301" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226532301">978-0226532301</a></li>
<li>Ram Rāz, Henry Harkness (1834), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cdEDAAAAYAAJ">Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>—on Hindu Temple Vimana, Pillars and Śilpa Śastras.</li>
<li>Nagar, Shanti Lal (1990). <i>The temples of Himachal Pradesh</i>. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSastri1970" class="citation book cs1">Sastri, K.A.Nilakanta (1970). <i>Advanced History of India</i>. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 181–182.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advanced+History+of+India&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=181-182&rft.pub=Allied+Publishers+Pvt.+Ltd&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Sastri&rft.aufirst=K.A.Nilakanta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSircar1979" class="citation book cs1">Sircar, D.C. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-O18xhA_BXUC&pg=PA64"><i>Some Epigraphical Records of the Medieval Period from Eastern India</i></a>. Delhi: Shakti Malik. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788170170969" title="Special:BookSources/9788170170969"><bdi>9788170170969</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+Epigraphical+Records+of+the+Medieval+Period+from+Eastern+India&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Shakti+Malik&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9788170170969&rft.aulast=Sircar&rft.aufirst=D.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-O18xhA_BXUC%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHindu+temple" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hindu_temples" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Hindu temples">Hindu temples</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Hindu_temple" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Hindu temple">Hindu temple</a> at Wikiquote</li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aarti" class="mw-redirect" title="Aarti">Ārati</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_deities" title="Hindu deities">Deities</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">Homa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kirtan" title="Kirtan">Kirtan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">Murti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tilaka" title="Tilaka">Tilaka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utsava" title="Utsava">Utsava</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vrata" title="Vrata">Vrata</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yatra" title="Yatra">Yatra</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Rituals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">Puja</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhisheka" title="Abhisheka">Abhisheka</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Panchamakara" title="Panchamakara">Panchamakara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panchamrita" title="Panchamrita">Panchamrita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parikrama" title="Parikrama">Parikrama</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pran%C4%81ma" title="Pranāma">Pranāma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prasada" title="Prasada">Prasada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pushpanjali" title="Pushpanjali">Pushpanjali</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">Homa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Putrakameshti" title="Putrakameshti">Putrakameshti</a></li>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achamana" title="Achamana">Achamana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Blessing#Hinduism" title="Blessing">Ashirvada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ashvamedha" title="Ashvamedha">Ashvamedha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karmkand" class="mw-redirect" title="Karmkand">Karmakāṇḍa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kumbhabhishekham" title="Kumbhabhishekham">Kumbhabhishekham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nityakarma" title="Nityakarma">Nityakarma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ngejot" title="Ngejot">Ngejot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panchayatana_puja" title="Panchayatana puja">Panchayatana puja</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Sandhyavandanam" title="Sandhyavandanam">Sandhyavandanam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhi_(Hinduism)" title="Shuddhi (Hinduism)">Shuddhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tarpana" title="Tarpana">Tarpana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Upakarma" title="Upakarma">Upakarma</a></li></ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Brahmamuhurta" title="Brahmamuhurta">Brahmamuhurta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jagarana" title="Jagarana">Jagarana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jai_Shri_Ram" title="Jai Shri Ram">Jai Shri Ram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japa" title="Japa">Japa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kirtan" title="Kirtan">Kirtan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Om</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sandhyavandanam" title="Sandhyavandanam">Sandhyavandanam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shaktipat" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaktipat">Śaktipāta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Third_eye" title="Third eye">Third eye</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gayatri_Mantra" title="Gayatri Mantra">Gayatri Mantra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hare_Krishna_(mantra)" title="Hare Krishna (mantra)">Hare Krishna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Om</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Om_Namah_Shivaya" title="Om Namah Shivaya">Om Namah Shivaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Om_Namo_Narayanaya" title="Om Namo Narayanaya">Om Namo Narayanaya</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puja_thali" title="Puja thali">Puja thali</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Altar#Hinduism" title="Altar">Altar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Banalinga" title="Banalinga">Banalinga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Banana_leaf" title="Banana leaf">Banana leaf</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biruda" title="Biruda">Biruda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coconut" title="Coconut">Coconut</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dhunachi" title="Dhunachi">Dhunachi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dhuni" title="Dhuni">Dhuni</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dhupa" title="Dhupa">Dhupa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Diya_(lamp)" title="Diya (lamp)">Diya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fly-whisk" title="Fly-whisk">Cāmara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Garland" title="Garland">Garland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ghanta" title="Ghanta">Ghanta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joss_stick" class="mw-redirect" title="Joss stick">Agarabattī</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kalasha" title="Kalasha">Kalasha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kamandalu" title="Kamandalu">Kamandalu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Khirapat" title="Khirapat">Khirapat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kindi_(vessel)" title="Kindi (vessel)">Kindi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kolam" title="Kolam">Kolam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moolavar" title="Moolavar">Mulavar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paduka" title="Paduka">Paduka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Litter_(vehicle)" title="Litter (vehicle)">Palki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panchamrita" title="Panchamrita">Panchamrita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pandal" title="Pandal">Pandal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pinda_(riceball)" title="Pinda (riceball)">Pinda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rangoli" title="Rangoli">Rangoli</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shankha" title="Shankha">Shankha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tilaka" title="Tilaka">Tilakamu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Utsavar" class="mw-redirect" title="Utsavar">Utsavar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">Yajnopavitam</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agarwood" title="Agarwood">Agarwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alta_(dye)" title="Alta (dye)">Alta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Camphor" title="Camphor">Camphor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charu" title="Charu">Charu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ghee" title="Ghee">Ghee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Incense_in_India" title="Incense in India">Incense</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kumkuma" title="Kumkuma">Kumkuma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tagetes" title="Tagetes">Marigold</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">Milk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panakam" title="Panakam">Panakam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panchagavya" title="Panchagavya">Panchagavya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rudraksha" title="Rudraksha">Rudraksha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sandalwood" title="Sandalwood">Candana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sindoor" title="Sindoor">Sindūra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ocimum_tenuiflorum" title="Ocimum tenuiflorum">Tulasi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Turmeric" title="Turmeric">Turmeric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vibhuti" title="Vibhuti">Vibhuti</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Instruments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dholak" title="Dholak">Dholak</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pump_organ#Harmonium" title="Pump organ">Harmonium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taal_(instrument)" title="Taal (instrument)">Karatalas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Khol" title="Khol">Khol</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Manjira" class="mw-redirect" title="Manjira">Manjira</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mridangam" title="Mridangam">Mridangam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tabla" title="Tabla">Tabla</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Veena" title="Veena">Veena</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_iconography" title="Hindu iconography">Iconography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashtadhatu" title="Ashtadhatu">Ashtadhatu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lingam" title="Lingam">Lingam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">Murti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Om</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Panchaloha" title="Panchaloha">Panchaloha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pindi_(Hindu_iconography)" title="Pindi (Hindu iconography)">Pindi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pillaiyar_Su%E1%B8%BBi" title="Pillaiyar Suḻi">Pillaiyar Suḻi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shaligram" title="Shaligram">Shaligram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yoni" title="Yoni">Yoni</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_iconography" title="Category:Hindu iconography">more...</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashram" title="Ashram">Ashram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dhwaja_Stambha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhwaja Stambha">Dhvajastambham</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ghat" title="Ghat">Ghat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_tank" title="Temple tank">Temple tank</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matha" title="Matha">Matha</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Temple</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage sites</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guru" title="Guru">Guru</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pandit" title="Pandit">Pandit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pujari" title="Pujari">Pujari</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Purohita" title="Purohita">Purohita</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rishi" title="Rishi">Rishi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sadhu" title="Sadhu">Sadhu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">Sannyasa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sant_(religion)" title="Sant (religion)">Sant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satguru" title="Satguru">Satguru</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Swami" title="Swami">Swami</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yogi" title="Yogi">Yogi</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Titles_and_occupations_in_Hinduism" title="Category:Titles and occupations in Hinduism">more...</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Sacred animals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cattle_in_religion_and_mythology#Sacred_status_of_cow" title="Cattle in religion and mythology">Cow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ashva" title="Ashva">Horse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81ga" title="Nāga">Nāga</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Sacred plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Trees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akshayavata" title="Akshayavata">Akshayavata</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saraca_asoca" title="Saraca asoca">Ashoka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Banyan" title="Banyan">Banyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neolamarckia_cadamba" title="Neolamarckia cadamba">Kadamba</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kalpavriksha" title="Kalpavriksha">Kalpavriksha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nyctanthes_arbor-tristis" title="Nyctanthes arbor-tristis">Parijata</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ficus_religiosa" title="Ficus religiosa">Peepal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_groves_of_India" title="Sacred groves of India">Sacred groves</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Fruits and other plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegle_marmelos" title="Aegle marmelos">Bael</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Desmostachya_bipinnata" title="Desmostachya bipinnata">Kusha grass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera" title="Nelumbo nucifera">Lotus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tulasi_in_Hinduism" title="Tulasi in Hinduism">Tulasi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tulasi_Vrindavana" title="Tulasi Vrindavana">Tulasi Vrindavana</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firewalking" title="Firewalking">Firewalking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Samskara_(rite_of_passage)" title="Samskara (rite of passage)">Samskara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_dance" title="Temple dance">Temple dance</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Places_of_worship" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Place_of_worship" title="Template:Place of worship"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Place_of_worship" title="Template talk:Place of worship"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Place_of_worship" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Place of worship"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Places_of_worship" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">Places of worship</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bahai_star.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bahai_star.svg/15px-Bahai_star.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bahai_star.svg/23px-Bahai_star.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bahai_star.svg/30px-Bahai_star.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_House_of_Worship" title="Baháʼí House of Worship">Baháʼí House of Worship</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dharma_Wheel.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg/15px-Dharma_Wheel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg/23px-Dharma_Wheel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg/30px-Dharma_Wheel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">Buddhist Monastery or Vihāra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya">Chaitya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Christian_cross.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/12px-Christian_cross.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/18px-Christian_cross.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/24px-Christian_cross.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="564" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aum_Om_black.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Aum_Om_black.svg/15px-Aum_Om_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Aum_Om_black.svg/23px-Aum_Om_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Aum_Om_black.svg/30px-Aum_Om_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hindu temple or Mandir</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_temple" title="Balinese temple">Balinese temple or Pura</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jainism.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Jainism.svg/12px-Jainism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Jainism.svg/18px-Jainism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Jainism.svg/24px-Jainism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="842" data-file-height="1559" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Jain_temple" title="Jain temple">Jain temple or Derasar or Basadi</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_Star_of_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Black_Star_of_David.svg/15px-Black_Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Black_Star_of_David.svg/23px-Black_Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Black_Star_of_David.svg/30px-Black_Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue"> Synagogue or Shul</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_of_Islam.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Symbol_of_Islam.svg/15px-Symbol_of_Islam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Symbol_of_Islam.svg/23px-Symbol_of_Islam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Symbol_of_Islam.svg/30px-Symbol_of_Islam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="216" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dargah" title="Dargah">Dargah</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gongbei_(Islamic_architecture)" title="Gongbei (Islamic architecture)">Gongbei</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg/15px-Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg/23px-Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg/30px-Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="1615" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Mandi_(Mandaeism)" title="Mandi (Mandaeism)">Mandi or Mashkhanna or Beth Manda</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> & <a href="/wiki/Modern_Paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Paganism">Modern Paganism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pagan_religions_symbols.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pagan_religions_symbols.png/20px-Pagan_religions_symbols.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pagan_religions_symbols.png/30px-Pagan_religions_symbols.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pagan_religions_symbols.png/40px-Pagan_religions_symbols.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heathen_hof" title="Heathen hof">Heathen Hof or Germanic Pagan temple</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magic_circle" title="Magic circle">Magic circle</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shintoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shintoism">Shintoism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Torii.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Torii.svg/15px-Torii.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Torii.svg/23px-Torii.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Torii.svg/30px-Torii.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="520" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Shinto_shrine" title="Shinto shrine">Shinto Shrine or Jinja</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Khanda.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Khanda.svg/15px-Khanda.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Khanda.svg/23px-Khanda.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Khanda.svg/30px-Khanda.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="632" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Gurdwara" title="Gurdwara">Gurdwara</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pakua.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Pakua.svg/15px-Pakua.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Pakua.svg/23px-Pakua.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Pakua.svg/30px-Pakua.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="430" data-file-height="426" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_temple" title="Taoist temple">Taoist temple or Dàoguàn</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Faravahar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Faravahar.svg/25px-Faravahar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Faravahar.svg/38px-Faravahar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Faravahar.svg/50px-Faravahar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fire_temple" title="Fire temple"> Fire temple or Agiary or Atashkadeh or Atashgah or Dar-e Mehr</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Varying religions and beliefs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altar" title="Altar">Altar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cult_(religious_practice)" title="Cult (religious practice)">Cult</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_architecture" title="Sacral architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asylum_(antiquity)" title="Asylum (antiquity)">Asylum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cult_image" title="Cult image">Cult image</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanctuary" title="Sanctuary">Sanctuary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shrine" title="Shrine">Shrine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple" title="Temple">Temple</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_temple" title="Sun temple">Sun temple</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b>Note:</b> Sorted alphabetically except the last one</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q842402#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Temples hindous"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941988n">France</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Temples hindous"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941988n">BnF data</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007529671205171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Hindu temples"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85133762">United States</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="hinduistické chrámy"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph139382&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
